The Atheist Bible

• The World Religions
  • History of Religion
    • The earliest religions
    • Neanderthal burials
    • Human burials
    • Grave goods
    • Venus figurines
    • From local spirits to gods
    • American religions
    • Neolithic religions
    • The Indo-Europeans
    • The Indo-European religions
    • Zoroastrianism
    • Yazidism
    • The Ancient Near East
  • Indian Religions
    • Indian religions
    • Hinduism
    • Buddhism
    • Jainism
    • Sikhism
  • East Asian Religions
    • Chinese Folk Religion
    • Confucianism
    • Taoism
    • Shintoism
  • Indigenous Religions
    • Indigenous religions
    • African Indigenous religions
    • Australian Indigenous religions
  • Abrahamic Religions
    • Abrahamic religions
    • Judaism
    • Christianity
    • Islam
    • The Bahai Faith
    • Spiritualism
  • New Belief Systems
    • New religious movements
    • The Wicca Faith
    • Scientology
    • Nonreligious spirituality
    • Metaphysical philosophies
    • Deism
    • Humanism
  • References

History of Religion

The earliest religions

It is difficult to determine when religion first appeared in the history of humankind. It is probably safe to assume that the last common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, alive roughly 6 to 7 million years ago, was not religious (at least not in the way this book defines religion). This is because, in our definition of the word, a religion is a set of beliefs that contains supernatural statements. Since this common ancestor was not capable of speech, they would not have been able to form or share such verbal statements. Furthermore, if this common ancestor had been religious, then we would likely see religion in chimpanzees, too — which we don’t.

As we move forward in time, new genera of hominids appear on the scene, such as Ardipithecus (6-4 million years ago) and Australopithecus (4-2 million years ago), followed by the earliest species of Homo, such as Homo habilis (2.4-1.4 million years ago) and Homo erectus (1.6 million-250,000 years ago), and then Homo neanderthalensis (400,000-40,000 years ago) and our own species, Homo sapiens (300,000 years ago).

Now, when did religion first appear? It is hard to know for certain. Archaeologists mostly rely on

• funerary treatments, offerings, and grave goods, such as food, weapons, pottery, flowers, or jewelry. Since grave goods are of no value to the deceased person from a materialistic viewpoint, their presence may indicate belief in the supernatural or some version of life after death.
• symbols, figurines, or paintings of inexistent creatures, such as unicorns, people with more than two arms, or hybrids of humans and animals. These could be indications of belief in supernatural beings.

We will now trace these indicators through history.

Neanderthal burials

Most animals do not bury their dead, and it is likely that our early human ancestors did not either. The problem is that bodies decompose over time, and so we do not know much about early burial practices, or lack thereof.

Some of the earliest evidence for intentional burial dates to 400,000 years ago. At one of the archaeological sites in the caves at Sierra de Atapuerca in Burgos, Spain, 28 individuals of Homo heidelbergensis were found at the bottom of a deep shaft. All were found within the same layer of earth, alongside a quartzite hand axe. While these bones might have arrived there by chance, it is unlikely that all 28 would have fallen simultaneously into the cave, suggesting to archaeologists that they were intentionally buried1.

Concentrated remains of Neanderthals have also been found at the sites of La Quina and L’Hortus in France, and at Krapina Cave in Croatia, each dating to at least 100,000 years ago. A number of the remains at the latter showed signs of defleshing prior to burial. While one may think this a sign of cannibalism, the cut and scrape marks on the bones are actually quite different from those that indicate butchering for meat. In light of this, it is tempting to speculate that the bodies were defleshed for ritual reasons.

The evidence for intentional burial becomes stronger as we advance in time. Around 70,000 years ago, there are least two dozen examples of intentional Neanderthal burials in France, the northern Balkans, and the Near East (Israel and Syria). The Neanderthals placed their dead in simple graves, with apparently no concern for grave goods or elaborate markers. On occasion, archaeologists have found limestone blocks within or atop the graves that may have been used as markers, although this is difficult to prove.2

The youngest Neanderthal burial found (as of yet) dates to around 35,000 years ago and is in St. Césaire, France. After this, the Neanderthals were superseded by Homo sapiens2.

While we may interpret these Neanderthal burials as a concern for the spirits of the deceased or as a method of easing their transition to the afterlife, burying the dead may also have been done for purely pragmatic reasons, such as masking the odor of decomposition so as not to attract predators or scavengers. Burial could also have been an artifact of extrapolated empathy: I do not want to be eaten by wild animals, so I don’t want my family members to be eaten by wild animals — even if they are dead. In the end, it is difficult to determine with absolute certainty whether these burials are evidence of religious thought.

As an article in British Archaeology points out: “We often forget that it is only in the modern, Western world that burial of the dead has been a more or less universal and commonplace practice. Not only in the earliest periods but throughout prehistory, humans disposed of the bodies of their loved ones by a variety of means, most of which have left no traces and can only be guessed at by scholars today.”2

Human burials

To date, the earliest trace of an intentional burial by Homo sapiens is found in the Skhul and Qafzeh caves in Israel. There, around 100,000 years ago, a number of men, women, and children were purposefully interred, their bodies heavily colored with red ochre3.

Different possible reasons for the use of red ochre have been suggested. It has been hypothesized that primarily the ochre was placed on the bodies as part of a ritual — i.e., a behavior that serves no direct purpose other than psychological, social, or spiritual. Another possible reason for the ochre is that it deters scavengers. Some experiments suggest that ochre may have a particular taste, smell, or bacterial property that makes it unattractive to animals4.

In any case, the treatment testifies to a certain level of care for the deceased. The use of ochre to color the bodies of those who have passed on serves no physical purpose for the living. From a subsistence point of view, it is just a waste of time (and ochre). Hence, it is tempting to think that supernatural belief played a role.

Grave goods

Another development in early peoples’ relationship with religion took place around 34,000 years ago in Eurasia: the use of grave goods (i.e., items that were deliberately buried with the dead). In many cases, these are the bones of large herbivores such as aurochs, mammoth, bison, or reindeer.

At the archaeological site of Sunghir in Russia, for example, one burial contained several thousand mammoth ivory beads, several hundred fox teeth pendants, and a panoply of ivory artifacts5. And at Arene Candide Cave in Italy, a young male (Italians call him “The Prince”) was buried with a cap of mammoth ivory beads, four enigmatically-shaped, holed and incised antlers known as batons, a flint blade sourced from over 100 km away, and several other valuable possessions62.

But grave goods pose a conundrum: Why would people spend time and effort to collect and place items with their dead if this action did not literally serve the deceased? The answer is commonly assumed to be for ritual or religious reasons. It is tempting to think that people gave these grave goods as gifts to the deceased for an afterlife.

Venus figurines

Around the same time that grave goods appear to have become more common, people in Eurasia began to produce what we call Venus figurines. These are statuettes of women that vary in size between 4 cm and 25 cm. They are roughly diamond-shaped, and have a small head without facial details, big breasts, a large belly and wide hips, large thighs, and small or absent feet. Over a hundred such figurines have been found across Eurasia. They were carved from soft stone (such as steatite, calcite, or limestone), bone, or ivory, or formed of clay and fired. The latter are among the oldest known ceramics.7

The Venus of Hohle Fels (Germany), which was carved from a mammoth’s tusk around 35,000 years ago, is so far the oldest figurine to have been found. The Venus of Willendorf (Austria, pictured) is slightly younger, and dates to about 27,000 years ago7. One of the youngest figurines is the Venus of Monruz (Switzerland), dating to about 11,000 years ago.8

These figurines have no known connection to the Roman goddess Venus — the name was given to them because archaeologists conjectured that they may have represented a beauty ideal to their creators. Interestingly, the figurines are shaped consistently across tens of thousands of years. It is also striking that the great majority of unearthed sculptures from the past 30,000 years are representations of females.

The Venuses seem to represent something imaginary or symbolic, in part because they lack feet and faces. And since the figurines have no practical use in the context of subsistence, archaeologists speculate that they may have been emblems of security and success, fertility icons, or representations of a mother goddess. This is further supported by their occasional presence in graves.2 However, they could also have just been works of art, representing an ancient beauty ideal. They could even have been biased representations of reality: Much like children’s drawings show people with only heads and legs, the figurines show women with only hips and breasts.

From local spirits to gods

As we advance in time, we find that the societies began to worship gods (as we define them in this book). Evidence for such gods comes from artifacts, inscriptions, architecture, paintings or painted objects, and, later, written records. One pattern that emerges in studying these materials is that older (and smaller) societies tended to be animist, meaning people believed that the physical objects of nature, such as a local river, a particular mountain, or a particular tree, had a spirit10. They also often personified these objects.

Beliefs in local spirits can still be seen in Shintoism and in the Indigenous religions that exist today in Africa and Australia. However, once trade networks expanded and societies grew larger and more socially and politically complex, people began to believe in spirits or entities whose power and authority encompassed a wider territory. This gave rise to the belief in ever more universal and powerful gods11. We will now trace this process for the American religions, the Neolithic religions, the Indo-European religions, and the religions of the Ancient Near East.

American religions

The prevailing theory is that people arrived in the Americas from Eurasia more than 15,000 years ago, via what is today Alaska. From there, peoples spread down and across North America, and all the way to the very tip of South America. Over time, these migrations gave rise to the following cultures:

The Olmec

The Olmec culture, which flourished between 1200 BCE and 400 BCE in Central America, is often considered one of the first complex civilizations of Mesoamerica. Based on the remains of sculptures and architecture, as well as other artifacts, researchers believe that the Olmecs worshiped numerous gods. Since their names are unknown, they are referred to as Gods 1 through 10. Some of the most iconic are the Olmec Dragon (God 1, possibly the god of the Earth, water, and fire) and the Olmec Bird Monster (God 3, possibly the god of the heavens).12

The Maya

The Maya culture flourished between 2000 BCE and 1500 CE in Central America. In combination with architecture and archaeological artifacts, much of what we know about Maya religion comes from the Maya themselves, in the form of hieroglyphic writings that survive to this date. There are also books written by both the Maya and the Spanish at the time of the colonization13.
From these writings, we know that the Maya believed in several gods, each representing a different part of life, including the creator god Itzamná, the sun god Kinich Ahau, sometimes known as the Night Jaguar, who represented the journey of the Sun. There was also a moon goddess, a maize god, and a feathered serpent god, Kukulkan, who controlled the rain. The Maya made regular offerings to their gods in the form of animal (and sometimes human) sacrifice14. They also practiced “self-sacrifice” via bloodletting15. The Maya built several pyramid-shaped temples in honor of the gods, some of which survive to this day (pictured).
After colonization, the Maya incorporated several elements of European religion into their religious belief system. One example is the horse of the first European explorer, Hernán Cortés, which became one of the gods of the Maya under the name of Tzimin Chac13.

The Aztecs

The Aztecs dominated Northern Mexico between 1300 CE and 1600 CE from their capital city of Tenochtitlan (present-day Mexico City). Second only to the Inca (see below) at the time of European conquest, the Aztecs ruled over an expansive empire. From Spanish accounts we know that the Aztecs worshiped a god of war (Huitzilopochtli), a sun god (Tonatiuh), a rain god (Tlaloc), and, like the Maya, a feathered serpent god (Quetzalcóatl). Human sacrifice, particularly the offering of a victim’s heart (usually a prisoner of war) to Tonatiuh, was commonly practiced, as was bloodletting.16

Other North American cultures

Other Indigenous tribes in North America typically had their own localized religious beliefs in which they worshiped one or several gods and/or spirits. Common to all, however, was the absence of a distinction between the sacred and the worldly: Natural entities such as mountains, springs, lakes, and clouds were considered sacred. Traditional beliefs were usually passed down to the next generation through oral storytelling.17

The Inca

In Western South America, the Inca Empire ruled an expansive territory reaching up and down the Andes Mountain chain from roughly 1200 CE to 1500 CE. From Spanish accounts, we know that the Inca worshiped a sun god (Inti), a female moon god (Mama Quilla), a creator god (Viracocha), and a rain god (Apu Illapu) among others. The Incas practiced divination and the sacrifice of both animals and humans.18

Europeans first arrived in the Americas in 1492 CE. Through colonization, genocide, and assimilation, the practicing of Indigenous religions has declined. A notable exception are the Maya, who exist as a large ethnolinguistic group in Central America to this day19.

Neolithic religions

As people were migrating across and down the Americas, Eurasia entered the Neolithic period (around 10,000 BCE). The last period of the Stone Age, it was characterized by the development of farming, the domestication of animals, and the invention of metal tools. It was also around this time that the first cities, states, and kingdoms emerged.

Little is known about the religions of this time, in part because the beliefs were not preserved in writing (writing did not enter the picture until roughly 2000 BCE). To date, archaeologists have identified only a few Neolithic sites that could have served as places of worship.

Göbekli Tepe

Göbekli Tepe is an archaeological site in southern Turkey, close to the border with Syria, that dates to the 10th to 8th millennium BCE. Its most impressive feature is the remains of more than 200 massive T-shaped stone pillars arranged in roughly 20 circles. Each pillar has a height of up to 6 m and a weight of up to 20 tons, and many have carvings of animals. Göbekli Tepe is often called “the world’s first temple” because the site shows no evidence of domestic structures (although that has recently been challenged)20.

Çatalhöyük

Çatalhöyük was a settlement in southern Turkey that existed from approximately 7500 BCE to 5700 BCE. The site included elaborate shrines with complex paintings, installations, and sculptures21. The inhabitants buried their dead inside their houses, often in tightly flexed positions (knees pulled into chest), together with red ochre22. Some of the deceased were buried with their skulls detached from their bodies21. These burial practices may have served religious or ritual purposes — although we cannot know this with any certainty.

Megalithic Temples of Malta

The Mediterranean Island of Malta is home to several prehistoric temples built between 3600 BC and 2500 BC. One such temple, the Tarxien Complex (pictured), dates to 3150 BC. The discovery of altars and the carvings of animals on the stone walls at the site have given rise to the hypothesis that the temple was used for animal sacrifice23.

Stonehenge

Stonehenge, an archaeological site in southern England, is mainly known for its ring of standing stones erected between 3100 BCE and 1600 BCE (i.e., in the Bronze Age). The ring contains two types of stones: bluestones (weighing 2 to 5 tons) and sarsen stones (weighing 25 to 30 tons). The sarsen stones were most likely brought to the site from 25 km away, while the bluestones were sourced from hundreds of kilometers away24. These stones may have served a ritual purpose, as they are built to align with the Sun on solstices, but we have no certainty on this. A comparable site in Ireland, Newgrange, dates to 3200 BC.

The Indo-Europeans

To understand how religion evolved following the Neolithic age in Europe and Asia, it is helpful to look at today’s cultures. Today, several languages in Europe and Southwest Asia share surprisingly similar lexicons. For example, the English word “mother” is “modar” in Gothic (a Germanic language spoken by the Goths), “mater” in Latin, “meter” in Ancient Greek, “matr” in Sanskrit, “matar” in Persian, “mati” in Slavic, “móteris” in Lithuanian, “matir” in Gaulish (Celtic), “mayr” in Armenian, and “motër” in Albanian — while it is “hahaoya” in Japanese. This linguistic commonality, coupled with similar myths and shared genetic traits across these populations, have led researchers to postulate a common ancestor culture: the Proto-Indo-Europeans (PIEs). It is hypothesized that the PIEs originated between 8000 BCE and 3000 BCE25. Different hypotheses as to the homeland of the PIEs have been put forward, one of which places it in the region between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. What is known for certain is that the PIEs later migrated west to Europe and south to India.

The most important descendant cultures of the PIEs were:

• The Sanskrit-speaking Vedic culture, which arose in India around 1500 BCE and flourished until 500 BCE, when it split into separate kingdoms.
• The Hittite Empire, which ruled in Anatolia (the region of present-day Turkey) from 1700 BCE until 1200 BCE, until it was gradually annexed by the Assyrians.
• The Achaemenid Persian Empire, which arose in the 2nd millennium BCE in present-day Iran. By 500 BCE, the Empire stretched from Egypt to what is today Pakistan. It broke apart after the Greek invasion led by Alexander the Great in 334 BCE.
• The ancient Greek civilization, which flourished between 1200 BCE and 146 BCE, when it was conquered by the Roman Empire. At the height of its power, in 323 BCE, the Greek empire stretched south to Egypt and east to Persia.
• The Roman Empire, which dominated the Mediterranean and large parts of Europe and the Levant from 70 BCE to 476 CE, when invasions by Germanic tribes (among others) contributed to its collapse. The language of ancient Rome was Latin.
• The Celtic cultures, which were united by a shared language that was widely spoken across Europe in 600 BCE. By 500 CE, the Celtic culture had been restricted to Ireland, western and northern Britain, and Brittany in France, due to Romanization and the migration of Germanic tribes.
• The Germanic cultures, which were united by a shared language as early as 500 BCE and spanned Anglo-Saxon Britain, Germany, and Norse Scandinavia.
• The Baltic cultures, which developed in the area of present-day Lithuania and Latvia around 2000 BCE.
• The Slavic cultures, which have existed in Eastern Europe since 500 CE.

Descendants of these cultures (with the exception of the Hittites) exist to this day in their respective regions.

The Indo-European religions

We have seen that the Proto-Indo-Europeans (PIEs) gave rise to several descendant cultures across Europe and South Asia. Based on commonalities in mythological stories among these descendent cultures, we can hypothesize that PIEs shared with them the following gods262728:

• A divine sky father. He corresponds to Zeus in Greek, Jupiter in Latin, Dyaus Pita in Sanskrit, Tyr in Old Norse, and Dei-pátrous in Illyrian.
• A goddess of the dawn, possibly the daughter of the sky father. She corresponds to Eos in Greek, Aurora in Latin, Ushas in Vedic, Ausrine in Lithuanian, and Auseklis in Latvian.
• A river goddess. In Vedic she was called “Danu”. Her name has been connected to the rivers Dnieper, Dniester, Don, and Danube, as well as to rivers in Celtic areas.
• Divine twins as ancestor figures of humanity. Germanic and Vedic cultures both believed in twin brothers as the progenitors of humankind: Manu in Vedic and Mannus in Germanic, along with his brother Yama in Vedic and Ymir in Germanic. Ancient Romans appear to have continued this tradition in the myth of the founding of Rome by the twin brothers Romulus and Remus. Other PIE-descendant cultures have male horse twins: Polydeukes and Kastor in Greek, the Ashvins in Sanskrit, Castor and Pollux in Latin, the twins of Macha in Irish, Ašvieniai in Lithuanian, Hengist and Horsa in Old English, and Lel and Polel in Slavic.
• A sea god, corresponding to Apam Napat in Vedic, Nechtan in Celtic, Nicor in Old English, and Neptune in Latin. Poseidon takes the role in Greek mythology, although the word does not appear to be linguistically related.
• Triple goddesses of fate. They appear as the Parcae in Roman mythology, the Norns in Norse mythology, the Moirai in Greek mythology, Sudjenice in Slavic folklore, the Ursitoare in the folklore of Romania, and corresponding triple goddesses in the Celtic and Lithuanian mythologies.

The Indo-Europeans (and most likely also the PIEs) also shared mythical stories. One such story is about a thunder god (or a human associated with it) who slays a serpent or dragon. This idea can be found in29:

• Zeus vs. Typhon, Kronos vs. Ophion, and Apollo vs. Python in Greek mythology;
• Thor vs. Jörmungandr, Sigurd vs. Fafnir, and Beowulf vs. the dragon in Germanic mythology;
• Indra vs. Vritra in the Vedic myths;
• Fereydun (and later Keresaspa) vs. Zahhak in Zoroastrianism and Persian mythology;
• The Drangue vs. the Kulshedra in Albanian mythology;
• Vahagn vs. the Vishap in Armenian mythology;
• Perun vs. Veles, Dobrynya Nikitich vs. Zmey Gorynych in the Slavic mythology;
• Făt-Frumos vs. Zmeu in the folklore of Romania; and
• Tarhunt vs. Illuyanka in the Hittite mythology.

In addition to these commonalities, each descendant culture developed its own stories and deities. One example is Minerva, the Roman goddess of wisdom, who adorns the cover page of this book. She may correspond to the Greek goddess Athena but has no counterpart in the other Indo-European religions.

The Indo-European religions and the Ancient Near East religions (which we shall discuss later) influenced one other, giving rise to mixed systems in Greece, Anatolia, and Persia. Most of the original Indo-European religions were overpowered after the rise of Christianity and Islam in the first centuries CE. However, the Vedic religion gave rise to Hinduism, which is the dominant religion on the Indian subcontinent to this day, while the ancient Persian religion gave rise to Zoroastrianism and Yazidism, which also both still exist. Zoroastrianism may have itself inspired Mithraism, a religion that enjoyed some popularity in the pre-Christian Roman Empire.

If the Roman Empire had selected Mithraism as the official state religion, rather than Christianity, you’d be a Mithraist instead of a Christian. I’d still be an atheist.

Zoroastrianism

By the second millennium BCE, descendants of the PIEs had arrived in Persia. There, their religion combined with that of the Elam civilization, which inhabited the area before their arrival. This religion held that there were many gods, all ruled by Ahura Mazda, who protected humanity from the dark forces led by the deity Angra Mainyu. To appease Ahura Mazda and ensure his protection, priests practiced animal sacrifice.30

It was under these circumstances that the Prophet Zoroaster (also called Zarathustra or Zartosht) was born sometime between 1500 and 1000 BCE. Zoroaster was appalled by the animal sacrifices. One day, he had a vision of Ahura Mazda, who told him that the priests had misunderstood the divine truth and were worshiping false gods. There was only one god worthy of worship (Ahura Mazda) and he did not require blood sacrifices to protect humanity from Angra Mainyu, only ethical behavior. Zoroaster was able to convince King Vishtaspa of his newly found faith. Other adherents followed, and by the time of the Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE), Zoroastrianism was the state religion of Persia.30

After the Arab conquest of Iran in 651 CE, Zoroastrians were persecuted, the faith suppressed, and their religious sites destroyed.30 Zoroastrianism survived, though, and it is practiced today by around 100,000 adherents, mostly in India, Iran, and North America.

Beliefs

The supernatural

The supreme god of Zoroastrianism is Ahura Mazda, and his evil opponent is Angra Mainyu. The other gods who were previously worshiped were incorporated into the faith mainly as spirits of Ahura Mazda. It is believed that Ahura Mazda created the world and that after death, the human soul goes either to Heaven or Hell, depending on how the person behaved during their lifetime.30

Moral framework

Zoroastrians are expected to pursue good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. The latter means telling the truth at all times, practicing charity to all, showing love for others, and having moderation in all things, especially in diet. Three core values of behavior are to make friends of enemies, to make the wicked righteous, and to make the ignorant learned.30

Practices

Zoroastrians practice ritual worship of Ahura Mazda in services in which milk, bread, and water are offered to the deity, and religious texts are recited31.

Scripture

The main scripture of Zoroastrianism is the Avesta, prayers and hymns ascribed to Zoroaster that were later put into writing during the Sasanian Empire (224–651 CE)32. It is available online in English translation33.

Discussion

Zoroastrianism bears striking resemblance to the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which also developed in the Near East. The creator of the world, Ahura Mazda is omniscient, omnipresent, eternal, and endowed with creative power — just like the Abrahamic god. Zoroastrianism also advances the concepts of individual responsibility for salvation, judgment after death, and Heaven and Hell — which can be found in the Abrahamic religions as well. And while the Abrahamic religions are monotheistic and Zoroastrianism is dualist (with a good god and a bad god), the opposition of good and evil can nevertheless be found in the Abrahamic religions as well — in the form of a good god and an evil devil. Both systems have sacred lawgivers (Zoroaster and Moses) who received their revelation on a mountain. And in both systems, humankind descends from a single couple who were chased away from a paradise on Earth because they listened to the evil spirit (Angra Mainyu and a snake, respectively). It is thus generally accepted that Zoroastrianism and the Abrahamic religions influenced one another.3031

Since Zoroastrianism predates Judaism (and thus the Abrahamic religions), it is generally assumed that most concepts went from the former to the latter. However, it is not clear when the tenets of Zoroastrianism were fully codified. Thus, the Abrahamic religions may have influenced Zoroastrianism as well. What is clear, though, is that the religious systems borrowed heavily from each other.31 One interesting difference is that in Zoroastrianism, Hell is not an eternal punishment as it is in Christianity and Islam. Ahura Mazda will not let any of his creations suffer eternally30. The Christian and Muslim god, in contrast, does not appear to share this concern for his creations.

Truth is best of all that is good.

Yazidism

The Persian descendants of the Proto-Indo-Europeans gave not just rise to Zoroastrianism, but also to Yazidism, a religion that survives to this day. It includes PIE elements, as well as elements of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Yazidism emerged as a distinct community in the middle of the 12th century in the area around Mosul in what is today Iraqi Kurdistan, forged in part by a man named Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir34. The main beliefs of Yazidism include an absolute transcendental God who created the world and then left it to seven benevolent divine beings (angels). The chief of them is Malak Taus (also called Tawusi Melek), who is worshiped in the form of a peacock (symbolizing the diversity of the world)34. Since many outside of Yazidism conflate Malak Taus with the Abrahamic Devil, Yazidis have been heavily persecuted, most notably during the Armenian Genocide of 1915 and during the reign of the Islamic State in the early 21st century35. Most of the Yazidi community in Turkey emigrated to Germany in the second half of the 20th century to escape persecution34. Today, Yazidism is practiced by about 1 million people in present-day Iraq and Kurdistan, and by several tens of thousands of adherents in Germany.

Beliefs

The supernatural

According to Yazidi belief, the supreme creator god (Xwede in Kurdish) made the world and then ended his involvement with it, leaving it in the control of seven divine beings led by Malak Taus. Similar to the Abrahamic creation story, all humans are said to descend from a single pair — Adam and Eve. However, Yazidis believe themselves to have descended from Adam, while the rest of humanity is descended from Eve. Yazidism also incorporates the Abrahamic belief in transcendence and holds that there is a rebirth after death.34

Moral framework

The Yazidi moral system centers on the principles of justice, truth, loyalty, mercy, and love. One can be a Yazidi only by birth, and marriage outside the community is not allowed. 36

Practices

Yazidis pray daily, and fast on three days per year, in December. Yazidi society is partitioned into castes, which do not intermarry. Yazidis pilgrimage the tomb of Sheikh Adi in Lalish in Northern Iraq.36 Possibly as a consequence of centuries of persecution, Yazidis seek to keep themselves segregated from other communities3435.

Scripture

Possibly due to continuous persecution, Yazidis are immensely secretive about their traditions and religious beliefs, which they pass on mainly orally. Two short books, the Kitab al-jilwah (“Book of Revelation”) and the Mashafrash (“Black Book”, also spelled Mishefa Resh), form the sacred scriptures, though it is now widely suspected that both volumes were compiled by non-Yazidis in the 19th century and then passed off as ancient manuscripts. However, their contents do, in fact, reflect authentic Yazidi oral tradition.34 Both are available online in English translation37.

I was, am now, and shall have no end.

The Ancient Near East

While the Proto-Indo-Europeans were migrating across Europe and Western Asia, the Near East (i.e., the region that corresponds roughly to the modern Middle East) was experiencing its own cultural and religious development. This development falls roughly between 4000 BCE and 0 CE. Our knowledge of this period comes from archaeological traces in the form of artifacts, architecture, burials, etc., as well as from writing, which was invented in the Near East at this time. A text recovered from the Pyramid of Unas in Egypt (pictured), for example, dates to 2300 BCE and details beliefs about the Pharaoh, the gods, and life after death.

From such sources, we have a decent understanding of how societies in the Ancient Near East functioned. We know, for example, that they were typically structured as city-states, i.e., cities that were sovereign. Many city-states were theocracies, meaning that the deity was officially recognized as the civil ruler and official policy was governed by those regarded as divinely guided3940. Most of these societies were polytheistic (i.e., they venerated several gods), though some were henotheistic, meaning that they worshiped a single god but acknowledged the existence of others. Most of these societies believed in another world after death.

The most important cultures were:

Egypt

The Ancient Egyptian civilization flourished from 3000 BCE until the Sasanian-Persian conquest of Egypt in 618 CE. We know about the religion of Ancient Egypt from symbols and scenes depicted on tombs and temple walls, and from ancient writings (i.e., hieroglyphics) on walls and papyrus scrolls, many of which were found in the pyramids. Important gods were Isis (the Queen of gods), Osiris (the god of wisdom), Ra (the sun god), Horus (his son), Anubis (the guide of the underworld), Nut (the sky goddess), and Seth (the god of evil)41. The kings (i.e., pharaohs) were believed to be divine and many of them were buried in the pyramids accompanied by grave goods and writings.

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia was a historical region within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in what is today Iraq and Syria (as well as smaller areas of Turkey, Iran, and Kuwait). The region was first settled by the Sumerians around 4000 BCE. Their civilization flourished for over two thousand years before the Akkadian Empire grew to command greater influence over the region. From 1792 BCE on, the region was ruled by Hammurabi, a Babylonian king, before being conquered by the Hittites and then the Kassites. Babylon ruled again from the 7th century BCE on before it fell to the Persian Empire in 539 BCE. The Sumerians were one of the first civilizations to invent writing, and some of the texts (in Cuneiform script) still exist to this day. From these, we know that the Mesopotamian cultures knew over 1,000 gods, and that the Mesopotamians believed that they were co-workers with the gods.42

Southwest Iran

The Elam civilization flourished in what is today southwestern Iran between 3200 BCE and 500 BCE. Their language was preserved in Cuneiform writing after their contact with the Sumerians. From these writings, we know that the Elamite knew around 200 gods, including Kiririsha (a mother goddess), Pinikir (the queen of heaven), Nahhunte (the god of justice, fair trade, and contracts), and Ishmekarab (the goddess of the underworld). Some gods were also imported from the Mesopotamian religions, for example, the war god Nergal. 43 The interplay of the Elamite Faith with the Iranian branch of the PIEs gave rise to Zoroastrianism.

Crete

The Minoan civilization flourished on the (nowadays Greek) island of Crete between 2000 BCE and 1500 BCE. We know about their culture from accounts by neighboring civilizations (such as Egypt), as well as from excavations of art, architecture, and artifacts. These include depictions of religious ceremonies and rituals, such as the pouring of libations and the making of food offerings, as well as processions and feasts. The Minoans apparently worshiped a voluptuous, Mother Earth-type goddess, as well as a masculine figure depicted holding several animals44. The role of the so-called Minoan Snake Goddess (pictured) remains unclear.

The Levant

The Levant comprises present-day Cyprus, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, and Syria. One of the major early peoples of the region were the Canaanites (with the Phoenicians as a subgroup), who flourished between 1600 BCE and 1100 BCE. We know about Canaanite culture from both archeological excavations and writings in cuneiform, Egyptian, and Phoenician. The principal god was El Elyon (also called just “El”). Others were Baal (the god of rainfall and fertility), Asherah (the consort of El), and Astarte (the goddess of fertility)45. The sons of El Elyon and Asherah were gods known as the Elohim46.

One of the Elohim would later merge with his father, El, and embark on a career as the main god of Judaism — a process that we discuss later in this chapter.

Indian Religions

Indian religions

The Indus Valley in Northwest India was the center of the Harappan civilization, which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1700 BCE. A few centuries later (around 1500 BCE), a branch of European PIE descendants, known as the Aryans, arrived in the valley. The Aryans spoke Sanskrit, an Indo-European language47. Between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, the Aryans composed the Vedas–-a collection of poems and hymns that praised a large number of gods48. The Vedas became the basis of Vedism, the oldest religion in India for which there exists written materials. Vedism incorporated Indo-European and Persian religious concepts with elements from the local Harappan belief system. Vedic Society was stratified into four castes: priests, warriors, traders, and servants. The religion was polytheistic, and Indra was its most important god. Ceremonies centered on the ritual sacrifice of animals to please the gods. During the early 1st millennium BCE, these rituals became more complex, and thus, the Brahmins (priests) rose in status and importance. In this way, Vedism evolved into Brahmanism.49

The emphasis on ritual (and the growing power of the Brahmins) caused a questioning of traditional Vedic thought by the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. Around this time, the Upanishads were written as appendices to the Vedas, and developed three important concepts49:

• Brahman, a supreme existence or absolute reality that cannot be comprehended by humans;
• Samsara, a repeating cycle of birth, life, and death in which the human soul is reborn (reincarnated) as a new being; and
• Karma, the idea that good deeds entail future happiness and bad deeds entail future suffering.

These new concepts, the questioning of traditional Vedic thought, and the opposition to the dominance of the Brahmins led some to found their own religions, most notably Buddhism and Jainism. Brahmanism itself evolved into Hinduism. Later, Sikhism evolved from Hinduism. These religions are grouped together as the Indian religions. They share the belief in a supra-system that ensures Samsara and Karma.

Within the Indian religions, gods may or may not be worshiped. Sikhism, for example, has one god, while Hinduism encompasses a variety of beliefs that can include no god, one god, or several gods. Similarly, Buddhists may or may not worship gods depending on the interpretation. Jainism does not have gods.

Hinduism

Origin

During the 1st millennium BCE, Brahmanism evolved into Hinduism50. The new religion was characterized by the concepts of reincarnation, Karma, and the idea that liberation from the cycle of reincarnation can be achieved by meditation49. At the same time, the importance of ritual sacrifice (and, hence, of Brahmins) decreased[Baghavad Gita: 11:55]. Devotion to the gods became more prominent, most notably to the Trimurti (the three forms of the divine), consisting of Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Shiva (the destroyer). Other important gods are Rama and Krishna (incarnations of Vishnu), Lakshmi (the goddess of fortune), and Ganesha (the elephant god and god of wisdom). The Vedic god Indra is also still revered.51 Hinduism evolved from previous religious convictions without a known founder or founding date (much like Shintoism and Chinese Folk Religion).

Hinduism soon spread through Southeast Asia. Its dominance was challenged in the 13th century CE by the Muslim conquest of the region and the associated rise of Islam. However, Hinduism remains, to this day, the dominant Indian religion. With 1.3 billion followers, it is the third largest religion in the world.

Beliefs

The supernatural

Hinduism centers on the concepts of Samsara (a supra-system with a repeating cycle of birth, life, and death), Karma (the idea that good deeds entail future happiness), Dharma (the principle of righteousness), and Brahman (the ultimate reality). Possibly due to its long history, the absence of a central founding figure, and its geographic extent, the religion encompasses a wide range of mythological stories. One creation story holds that a lotus flower grew from Vishnu’s navel, and upon it sat Brahma. Brahma then separated the flower into three parts — the heavens, the Earth, and the sky.52

Moral framework

The 10 Yamas (“restraints”) of Hinduism are nonviolence, truthfulness, not stealing, marital fidelity, kindliness, equanimity, patience, perseverance, moderation in food, and cleanliness[Shandilya Upanishad: Chapter 1].

Practices

Hindus practice a variety of rituals, which can include worship, bathing, yoga, meditation, chanting, pilgrimage, festivals, and rites of passage (e.g., for marriage and birth). Many Hindus embrace vegetarianism, and a large majority eschew the consumption of beef, as the cow is traditionally seen as sacred.53

Variants

There exists a plethora of different interpretations of Hinduism53.

Around 7% of Hindus revere several deities. These deities can act independently, have divine children, have different genders, roles, and names, and are called upon on different occasions.

61% of Hindus believe that these deities are all manifestations of one supreme being. In other words, this supreme being is a godhead of the different deities.

29% believe that there is only one god.

Finally, a small minority of Hindus believe that there is no god at all. While they are sometimes referred to as atheist, this interpretation still believes in the Hindu supra-system that ensures Samsara and Karma. Hence, this interpretation is not atheist in the sense of this book.

Scripture

For Hinduism, the most important texts are the Vedas, which were most likely compiled from oral traditions by priests and poets between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE48. The most recent addition to the Vedas are the Upanishads, and these are summarized in the Brahma Sutras. The two major epics of Hinduism, which tell stories of gods, kings, and wars, are the Ramayana (dating from the 8th to 4th centuries BCE) and the Mahabharata (from the 4th century BCE to the 3rd century CE). Included in the latter is the “Song by God”, also known as the Bhagavad Gita.

Hinduism has an entire body of jurisprudence called the Dharmashastra. Among these books, the Manusmriti (the “Laws of Manu”) is the oldest and traditionally most important545556. Still today, the Laws of Manu are considered fundamental by some politicians5758, judges5960, and most of Google’s top ranked English-language Hindu Web sites6162636465.

Many of the sacred texts of Hinduism can be found online in English translation66.

Discussion

Hinduism inherited its caste system from Vedism. In this system, the social class to which a person is born dictates their profession and dress code67, as well as aspects of their social lives, including whom they can marry. At the bottom are the Avarnas (also called Dalits), who were historically considered “untouchable”. Though the caste system predates the British occupation of India, it was actively enforced by the British, in particular beginning in 186068, when they translated the Laws of Manu and enforced castes as they understood them. This has given support to the idea that the caste system persists in India mainly due to the British.

And indeed, prior to occupation, Hindu society exhibited a much more diverse and flexible notion of caste than what was implemented by the British: There was a bewildering multitude of castes instead of the four we know today, and the caste system itself held less importance than the British accorded it68. That said, the notion of caste was not invented by the British: It appears across authoritative Hindu scripture[Bhagavadgita: 1.40-43, 4.13, 18.41-44][Laws of Manu: 1.87-91] that predates the British occupation by hundreds or thousands of years.

In 1920, the British made a U-turn on their prior enforcement of the caste system and introduced affirmative action for the Avarnas. This principle also appears in India’s constitution of 1950 and in subsequent laws69. Thus, affirmative action has been in place for 100 years now, while the British enforcement of the castes lasted 60 years. And yet, Indian society remains stratified, with 68% of the population belonging to the modern equivalent of the Avarnas (Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and so-called Other Backward Classes and Most Backward Classes)53. Though many Hindus converted to other religions such as Buddhism and Sikhism, they retained their caste designation. Hence, the system largely applies to all Indians today, regardless of religion, and marriage across social classes remains a taboo6953.

Every selfless act, Arjuna, is born from Brahman, the eternal, infinite Godhead. Brahman is present in every act of service. All life turns on this law, O Arjuna. Those who violate it, indulging the senses for their own pleasure and ignoring the needs of others, have wasted their life. But those who realize the Self are always satisfied. Having found the source of joy and fulfillment, they no longer seek happiness from the external world. They have nothing to gain or lose by any action; neither people nor things can affect their security. Strive constantly to serve the welfare of the world; by devotion to selfless work, one attains the supreme goal of life.

Buddhism

Origin

Siddhartha Gautama was born to a royal family in present-day Nepal in the 5th century BCE. Like India, the region was Hindu at the time. Siddhartha’s privileged life insulated him from the harsh realities of life. Legend has it that, one day, he ventured outside the royal compound for the first time and encountered an aged man, a sick man, and a dead man. Shocked by their suffering, he decided to dedicate his life to asceticism and meditation. On the brink of starving himself to death, a milkmaid offered Siddhartha some milk rice. Through this action he came to see that neither luxury nor asceticism leads to liberation. Instead, it must be the middle way.70

Sitting under a tree near Bodh Gaya (pictured), Siddhartha finally had the illumination that humans suffered because they did not recognize the transient nature of life. In this moment, he became “the Buddha” (the “Enlightened One”) and began teaching that humans suffer because of earthly desires. The goal of Buddhism is to liberate people from this suffering by following ethical principles, mental discipline, and a middle way between extreme asceticism and hedonism. This is, according to Buddhism, the path to enlightenment and to liberation from the cycle of rebirth.70 Today, Buddhism has around 500 million adherents, mainly in Mongolia, China, and Southeast Asia.

Beliefs

The supernatural

As in Hinduism, Buddhism recognizes the concepts of Samsara (a supra-system of the repeating cycle of birth, life, and death) and Karma (the idea that an unethical life causes one to be reborn under bad conditions, possibly in the underworld). Buddhists believe that the Universe did not come into existence, it has always existed. Buddhism teaches that humans suffer because of greed, delusion, and hatred, and that whoever realizes this and frees themselves from these evils, will achieve enlightenment (i.e., liberation from the cycle of rebirth). This enlightened state is called Nirvana71. Gods play only a minor role in Buddhism since they are, in any case, subject to the supra-system of Samsara. Some variants of Buddhism know several gods, such as the Four Heavenly Kings (pictured), while others do not know any.

Moral framework

The Buddha proposed the Noble Eightfold Path to achieving enlightenment, which emphasizes the “right speech”, “right actions”, “right livelihood”, and “right concentration”71. From these were derived the Five Precepts, which prohibit killing, theft, adultery, lying, and the consumption of alcohol72.

Practices

Common Buddhist practices include meditating on the qualities of the Buddha and honoring him by making offerings, for example. They also include pilgrimage and prayer, sometimes with prayer wheels71.

Scriptures

The oldest Buddhist scripture is the Pali Canon, a collection of the sayings of the Buddha that was likely compiled sometime during the 1st century BCE73. The Pali Canon is also known as the Tipitaka or Tripitaka because it consists of three parts: the Vinaya Pitaka, which contains the rules the Buddha laid down for monks and nuns, the Sutta Pitaka, which contains the Buddha’s discourses, and the Abhidhamma Pitaka, which comprises the psycho-ethical teachings of the Buddha. The Dhammapada, part of the Sutta Pitaka, is a particularly well-known collection of the Buddha’s sayings. The Pali Canon is available online in English translation74. For a newer reference, one can look to the Dalai Lama, the head of the Tibetan branch of Buddhism. His teachings are also available online in English translation75.

Variants

There are two main Buddhist schools of thought: Theravada and Mahayana. Theravada, the oldest surviving Buddhist school, is more conservative, while the Mahayana school tends to be more diverse. It uses an additional set of scripture known as the Mahayana sutras, which stem from the period of early Buddhism after the Buddha’s passing. Mahayana Buddhism is strongest in Tibet, China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Mongolia.71

Discussion

Many variants of Buddhism do not have gods. Therefore, one could posit that Buddhism is not a religion, but rather a system of ethics. It forbids, for example, killing, stealing, and lying, and combines this ethical system with the idea of Karma: if someone does something bad, then this will entail negative consequences later on. In other words: What goes around comes around.

The idea of “what goes around comes around” (in this life) is not a supernatural claim: It is falsifiable because it makes predictions. These predictions happen to be false, but there is no better proof for falsifiability than actual false predictions. To remedy these false predictions, Buddhists usually also incorporate the idea of Samsara (the repeating cycle of rebirth) into their faith. In this way, the idea of Karma can be upheld even if the consequences for one’s actions arrive only in the next life. Samsara is a supra-system in the sense of this book, i.e., an unfalsifiable hypothesis and thus a supernatural element. Its inclusion in the faith makes Buddhism a religion in the sense of this book.

By oneself the evil is done, by oneself one suffers; by oneself evil is left undone, by oneself one is purified. Purity and impurity belong to oneself, no one can purify another.

Jainism

Origin

Jainism traces its origin to the 24 Tirthankaras, or supreme teachers. There is little historical evidence that these were real people, except for the final Tirthankara, the Mahavira. The Mahavira was born in Northeast India in the 6th century BCE to a royal family and lived as an ascetic. He gave Jainism its current form. Like Buddhists and Hindus, Jains believe in reincarnation. By behaving well, and by being devoid of passions like anger, pride, and greed, one can escape reincarnation so that the immortal soul will live forever in a state of bliss. Unlike some variants of Buddhism and Hinduism, Jainism does not recognize any gods. Today, the faith has around 5 million adherents, the majority of whom live in India76.

Beliefs

The supernatural

Jainism shares with Hinduism and Buddhism the concepts of Samsara and Karma. It also holds, like Buddhism, that the Universe was never created, it was just always there and will always be. Unique to Jainism is the belief that the souls of those who have liberated themselves from the cycle of rebirth will become spirits (Jinas). Jinas, though worshiped as perfect role models for aspiring Jains, they are not gods. Jinas have no power to intervene in the Universe.76

Moral framework

Jain ethics is centered on the “Five Vows” of nonviolence, not lying, not stealing, chastity, and non-attachment to worldly possessions. The nonviolence extends also to animals: Jains are vegetarians and avoid any actions or jobs that cause harm to animals.76

Practices

Jains worship the 24 Tirthankaras in temples. The faith knows pilgrimages, almsgiving, meditation, and fasting during festivals.76

Scripture

The teachings of the Mahavira were originally passed down orally by his disciples as the Jain Agamas. At the time, the teachings could not be written down because Jain monks and nuns were not allowed to possess religious scripture as part of their vow of non-attachment. However, a famine around 350 BCE killed many of those who had memorized the texts. To save the teachings, the Jain community began canonicalizing these oral traditions, resulting in a collection of 45 texts.76 Another important text is the Tattvartha Sutra, which was written between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE. It is accepted by all denominations of the faith77, and is available online in English translation78

Variants

Jainism is divided into two major denominations: Digambara and Svetambara. They differ in their scripture. Svetambara Jains believe that the teachings of the Mahavira were collected accurately, while Digambara Jains believe that the original Jain Agamas were lost, and that the best surviving summary of them are the Satkhandagama (the “Six Part Scripture”) and the Kasayapahuda (the “Treatise on the Passions”), written by monks in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE. Digambaras believe that to achieve liberation, one must renounce all possessions, including clothing. Therefore, Digambara monks live naked. Since women are not allowed to be naked in public, this obliges them to be first reborn as a man before they can achieve liberation. The Svetambaras believe that women can achieve liberation without this detour.76

All breathing, existing, living, sentient creatures should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away.

Sikhism

Origin

Guru Nanak was born in 1469 CE in the Punjab region of present-day Pakistan. He was born to a Hindu family but was familiar with Islam, which had arrived in region by the 12th century CE. From 1496 to 1526, Nanak traveled throughout India, Tibet, and Arabia to study spiritual matters and to debate with the learned men he met along the way. During his travels, he developed his own view on spiritual fulfilment, which draws on ideas from both Hinduism and Islam: Humans are born and reborn in a cycle of reincarnation but they can escape this cycle by the grace of God.79

When Nanak returned from his journey, he attracted many followers in his native Punjab. He died in 1539, but his ideas were continued by nine subsequent gurus (spiritual leaders), the last one of whom died in 1708. During this time, Sikhism established itself as a religion. Throughout its history, the Sikh community has had to defend itself, violently at times, against Hindu, Muslim, and British rulers. The youngest of the large Indian religions, Sikhism has around 25 million adherents, mostly in Punjab.79

Beliefs

The supernatural

Sikhism shares with Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism the concepts of Samsara and Karma. In addition, Sikhs believe in a singular god who created the Universe. Liberation from the cycle of rebirth comes from the grace of this god, and people can become close to this god through worship, through living a good life, and through contemplation.79

Moral framework

The three duties of Sikhism are to keep God in mind at all times, to live an honest life, and to care for others (e.g., through charity). To live an honest life means to work hard and avoid crime, gambling, begging, and alcohol.79

Practices

The most important spiritual practice of Sikhism is worshiping God — either in private or public services. Public worship includes prayer, the recitation of hymns, and listening to the words of the scripture. It is usually concluded by a free community meal. The traditional Sikh outfit comprises the “5 Ks”: kesh (uncut hair), kara (a steel bracelet), kangha (a wooden comb), kachera (a special cotton underwear), and kirpan (a steel sword).79

Scripture

The main scripture of Sikhism is the Guru Granth Sahib, a compilation of the sayings of the first five gurus. It was written by the fifth guru, Guru Arjan, in 1604, and can be found online in English translation80. The 10th guru, Guru Gobind Singh, declared that he had no human successor, and that, henceforth, the book should supersede role of the gurus — as it duly did upon his death in 1708.79

[God] is beyond the world of the Vedas, the Koran and the Bible. [He] is immanent and manifest.

East Asian Religions

Chinese Folk Religion

Origin

In China, the earliest traces of religious belief date back to the Yangshao culture, which prospered between 5000 BCE to 3000 BCE in the Yellow River valley. At the site of Banpo Village in modern Shaanxi Province, 250 tombs were found containing grave goods, which have been interpreted as evidence for a belief in life after death. Archaeological findings suggest that the Yangshao worshiped personifications of nature, but also abstract concepts like “wealth” or “fortune”.81

Over the following several thousand years, these religious beliefs became more complex. Amulets and charms are thought to indicate a belief in ancestor spirits. By the third millennium BCE, people started believing in Nuwa (a woman-dragon goddess who molded human beings from the mud of the Yellow River) and Fuxi (Nuwa’s brother and husband, the god of fire and the teacher of human beings). By the time of the Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE), people believed also in a “king of the gods” named Shangdi (not to be confused with the Abrahamic god, who came to be called Shangdi upon Christianity’s arrival in China in the 16th century CE).81

The Shang Dynasty was also characterized by the nascence of written Chinese literature, which included stories of gods, emperors, wise men, immortals, spirits, local deities, dragons, humanoid animals, unicorns, and magical objects82. These stories constitute the basis of what this book refers to as Chinese Folk Religion. This religion includes a wide range of beliefs, all of which are characterized by the worship of shen. The shen are spirits or deities in the sense of this book. They can be nature deities, city deities, national deities, cultural heroes, demigods, and ancestors .

Chinese Folk Religion is not an organized religion with a written credo. Nor is membership in the religions formally established. Rather, they are a wide collection of local beliefs, which include varying spirits, gods, and rituals. Today, about 20% of China’s population practice a folk religion83.

Beliefs

The supernatural

Chinese Folk Religion holds that a person lives on as a shen after death84. There are also gods, including Tian, who can be understood as the supreme god and who is often synonymous with Shangdi (the Abrahamic god), and the twins Nuwa and Fuxi. As for the origin of the Universe, the demigod Pangu is commonly portrayed as the first living being. It is believed that he separated Heaven and Earth, and when he died, his body turned into the rivers, mountains, plants, animals, and everything else.85

Moral Framework

Chinese Folk Religion is focused on the family above all else. Ancestor worship is a consequence of this focus.86

Practices

Adherents of Chinese Folk Religion may variously observe geomancy (in the form of Feng Shui, a practice that aims to use energy forces to harmonize individuals with their environment), seek fortunetelling, worship the god of wealth, and engage in amuletic practices87. The religion worships shens, animal totems, and local gods. Astrology and communication with the ancestor spirits are also widely practiced.86

Scripture

Although not strictly speaking “scriptures” of Chinese Folk Religion, ancient Chinese literature is intimately linked with the faith86. The oldest work is the I Ching (“Book of Changes”), which dates to the 1st millennium BCE and deals with divination88. Another important work is the Shanhai jing (“Classic of Mountains and Seas”), a fabulous account of animals and geography, which dates to 400 BCE86.

Variants

Chinese Folk Religion is practiced in a continuum with Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. The founders of these three religions are sometimes revered together in the same temple (pictured). 86

The superior man learns and accumulates the results of his learning; puts questions, and discriminates among those results; dwells magnanimously and unambitiously in what he has attained to; and carries it into practice with benevolence.

Confucianism

Origin

Confucius was a Chinese philosopher born in 551 BCE in the state of Lu (present-day Shandong province) in Northeast China during the so-called “Spring and Autumn Period” of Chinese history. He was born as Kong Qiu but came to be addressed as “Kong Fuzi” (“Master Kong”), which was then Latinized to “Confucius” in the 16th century CE by Christian missionaries. Confucius was involved in the local government of Lu and attempted to teach the ruling class that observing a moral code would result in a more effective and just government. His main idea was that if people were taught to behave virtuously, society would govern itself without the need for an oppressive government. However, the upper class was not interested in his teachings. He resigned from his position and founded a school in which to teach his philosophy.89

Virtue, for Confucius, was foremost filial piety, but also benevolence (as expressed by the Golden Rule “Don’t do unto others what you would not have them do unto you”), pursuit of knowledge, loyalty to Government, integrity, and the practice of religious ritual (not because this would make any difference to any god but because Confucius believed that following such rituals helped people keep their ego in check). After Confucius' death in 479 BCE, his ideas were further developed by the Chinese philosopher Mengzi, Latinized as Mencius. Confucianism did not meet much success until it was made the national Chinese philosophy under Emperor Wu (Wu the Great) in the 2nd century BCE. Since then, Confucianism has been the dominant philosophy of China.89

Discussion

Confucius was focused on leading a good, earthly life, and was not much concerned with supernatural entities. He also refused to talk about what happens after death, asking: “You do not yet understand life, how could you possibly understand death?”[Analects: 11:12]. This disinterest in the supernatural makes it possible to follow the philosophy of Confucianism as a purely interhuman ethical framework. Such an interpretation of Confucianism is a moral framework in the sense of this book, and not a religion. It can be practiced in conjunction with a religion, or without a religion. Consequently, Confucianism is not recognized as a religion on its own in China90. Interestingly, the Catholic Church shares this view: After a centuries-long debate (the “Chinese Rites Controversy”), Pope Pius XII decided in 1935 that Confucianism is compatible with Catholicism91.

At the same time, there is an interpretation of Confucianism that believes in gods and spirits and practices prayer and worship92. This interpretation derives its beliefs from sayings of Confucius that acknowledge the existence of ancestor spirits[Analects: 2:24, 6:22, 8:21] and encourage us to worship them[Analects: 3:12, 2:5], and reference prayer[Analects: 3:13 7:35] as well as punishment from Heaven[Analects: 6:28]. This interpretation of Confucianism is a religion in the sense of this book, and we shall call it Religious Confucianism. It combines the philosophy of Confucius with supernatural elements from Chinese Folk Religion.

While Religious Confucianism existed in China well before the 20th century, all of its structures were dissolved with the rise of communism. Today, it lives on through the Confucian Academy in Hong Kong93, the Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia92, and various smaller churches and temples across East and Southeast Asia, including China (pictured). Confucianism is one of the six religions recognized in Indonesia, with an estimated number of adherents in the tens of thousands.

Beliefs

The supernatural

Religious Confucianism believes in Hao Tian (Heaven, or Tian in Chinese Folk Religion) as the supreme deity who governs the gods, created the Universe, and rules all things92. Religious Confucianism also holds that the ancestors live on as spirits, in particular, Confucius himself.

Moral framework

In Confucianism (religious or philosophical), the Five Virtues towards which adherents strive are benevolence, justice, propriety, knowledge, and trustworthiness94. Confucianism also values critical analysis[Analects: 9:8, 7:28] and learning[Analects: 8:13, 7:22, 2:15].

Practices

Religious Confucianism places much importance on worshiping the spirits of the ancestors, and in particular, the spirit of Confucius92. The religion also has ceremonies for birth, maturity, marriage, and death, as well as festivals.

Variants

Confucianism (religious or philosophical) is frequently practiced in combination with Chinese Folk Religion, Taoism, and/or Buddhism, and so it is difficult to differentiate the belief systems of the religions or to partition the adherents. Some people also practice just the philosophy of Confucianism, without any religious belief.

Scripture

Confucianism is based on the Analects of Confucius, a collection of sayings and ideas written down by Confucius’ followers, probably around 475 BCE to 221 BCE. The text can be found online in English translation95. Another important work is the Book of Mencius. Together with the Analects, it is part of the “Four Books and Five Classics”89 of Confucianism. The Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia issues contemporary edicts on moral questions.

The noble man seeks within himself [what] the common man seeks in others.

Taoism

Origin

The first writings of Taoism (or Daoism) is a book called Tao Te Ching, which dates, at least, to the 4th century BCE. It is attributed to Laozi (also spelled Lao Tzu), a mythical Chinese philosopher. Legend has it that Laozi grew impatient with the corruption he saw in Government and decided to go into exile. As he was leaving China, a gatekeeper stopped him at the border and asked Laozi to write a book for him before he left civilization forever. Laozi agreed, wrote the Tao Te Ching, and then disappeared forever.96 In reality, the Tao Te Ching is a collection of writings by many different people. It contains short, enigmatic paragraphs of advice on life as well as poetic descriptions of the nature of the Universe.97

By the 2nd century CE, Taoism had developed into the religion that we know today. The central concept of Taoism is the Tao, which is often translated as “the way”, and is understood to be the underlying natural order of the Universe — a supra-system in the sense of this book. Taoism emphasizes doing what is natural and “going with the flow” in accordance with the Tao96. Another important concept in Taoism is Yin and Yang — the idea that nature is filled with complementary forces that fit together and work in harmony (like masculine and feminine, action and inaction, wet and dry, etc.). Taoists aim to achieve harmony with nature, and meditation is often considered the path through which to achieve this balance. .97 Today, Taoism is practiced mainly in China and Taiwan, and has around 180 million adherents.

Beliefs

The supernatural

In Taoism, there is an underlying order of the Universe, called Tao, or “the Way”. In this, the Universe is dominated by two opposing forces: the Yin and the Yang. The Universe came into existence by a succession of abstract steps. In the Tao Te Ching, it is written that “the Tao gave birth to Unity, Unity gave birth to Duality, Duality gave birth to Trinity, and Trinity gave birth to the myriad creatures”[Tao Te Ching: 42]. There are several deities in Taoism, most notably the ancestor god Hongjun Laozu, and the “Three Pure Ones”. Taoism also acknowledges the existence of the spirits of the dead. Through meditation and self-improvement, adherents aim to attain spiritual immortality — the state where the death of the body has no impact on the continued life of the soul as a spirit.97

Moral framework

Taoism teaches not to initiate action but to wait for events to make action necessary, and to avoid being pushed into action by desires and compulsions. Beyond that, it disapproves of killing, stealing, lying, and promiscuity, and promotes altruistic, helpful, and kindly behavior.97

Practices

Adherents practice an array of methods such as meditation, Feng Shui, fortune telling, and the reading and chanting of scriptures97. Modern variants of Taoism burn paper models of cars, money, or other items (Joss paper) as offers to the spirits of the deceased98.

Variants

Taoism often blends with Chinese Folk Religion to a degree that it is hard to distinguish the two. It is also sometimes practiced together with Buddhism and/or Confucianism.

Scriptures

Taoism is based on the Tao Te Ching. It is available online in English translation99. Another important work is the Chaung Tzu (also spelled Zhuangzi), which is attributed to an author of the same name who lived from 369 BCE to 286 BCE. Chuang Tzu held that things should be allowed to follow their own course and that no situation should be valued over any other.100 The Daozang (also called the Tao Tsang or Daoist Canon) is a large collection of Taoist texts compiled between 960 CE and 1279 CE101. It consists of three parts called “grottos”. The third grotto is the “Spirit Grotto” (also called the Sanhuang Jing, or Book of Three Emperors), and it contains the “The Ultra Supreme Elder Lord’s Scripture of Precepts” (Number 0809, Book 18), a short summary of Taoist morals. It is available online in Chinese and in English102.

The sage produces, but does not own, acts but does not claim, accomplishes but does not take credit. And because he does not take credit, the credit does not go away.

Shintoism

Origin

Shintoism emerged in the 1st millennium BCE from local mythical beliefs in Japan, and still today it is inherently linked to Japan and the Japanese people. Shintoism believes in spirits and gods, called kami, which inhabit all things, including forces of nature and prominent locations on the landscape. The kami appreciate our interest in them, and if they are treated properly, they will intervene in our lives for our benefit. Hence, people pray to the spirits, worship them in shrines, and appease them with rituals.103

When Buddhism arrived in Japan in the 6th century BCE, Shintoism adopted many Buddhist concepts, and both religions were embraced by the Japanese emperor. The kami became associated with Buddhist deities, or with transformations of the Buddha himself. And it continued this way for centuries, until in 1868 CE, the Meiji Restoration advanced Shintoism as the native, official, and superior religion of Japan, and separated it from Buddhism. The emperor was declared the descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu, with a divine right to rule over not only Japan but the whole world. This claim was later retracted after the defeat of Japan in the Second World War. At this time, religion and state were separated, and Shintoism was cleansed of the political, nationalistic, and militaristic elements it had acquired.103 Today, Shintoism is practiced mainly in Japan, and by most of its 120 million people, although to varying degrees and in a seamless blend with Buddhism.

Beliefs

The supernatural

Shintoism holds that the kami reside in all things. After death, the human soul joins with the collective kami of its ancestors. Shintoism also knows gods, most notably the sun goddess Amaterasu, and the divine siblings Izanami and Izanagi, who created the land of Japan.104

Moral framework

Shintoism emphasizes the family and ancestral solidarity. It requires subordination of the individual to the group, and reveres nature.104

Practices

Adherents worship the kami in both public and household shrines, and through prayers and offerings. Other common rituals include dance, rites of passage, and seasonal festivals. Particular emphasis is on the notion of purification, for which there exist a variety of rituals.103

Variants

Shintoism exists in numerous variants, of which Shrine Shinto is the most prevalent. It is said to be closest to the traditional form of Shintoism, as it first appeared in the 1st millennium BCE.103

Scripture

The myths of Shintoism derive from oral traditions that were codified in two books: the Nihon Shoki, published in 720 CE, and the Kojiki, written by an official of the Empress Genmei between 708 CE and 714 CE. An additional source, the Kogoshui, was written around 807 CE by Imbe no Hironari, who collected oral traditions omitted from the Nihon Shoki and Kojiki105. These sources can be found online in English translation106.

The two Kami, Izanagi and Izanami, standing upon the Floating Bridge of Heaven, pushed down the jeweled spear and stirred with it, [...] and drew the spear up, the brine that dripped down from the end of the spear was piled up and became an island. This is the Island of Onogoro. Having descended from Heaven onto this island, Izanagi asked his younger sister Izanami: “In what manner was your body made?” She answered saying: "My body was made by growing, but there is one part that has not grown continuously.” Then said Izanagi: “My body was made by growing, but there is one part that has grown that is superfluous. Therefore, would it be good to graft this part of my body that has grown superfluously into the part of your body that has not grown?” “It will be good”, Izanami replied. [...] Having made this agreement, [...] Izanami said: “O beautiful and lovely young man!” And Izanagi replied: “O beautiful and lovely virgin!” [...] After each had finished their prayer, they began the work of procreation, and she gave birth to a son named Hirudin.

Indigenous Religions

Indigenous religions

Indigenous religions (also called tribal or ethnic religions) are religions that are bound to a particular society. They are typically smaller in scale and neither codified in scriptures nor institutionalized. This distinguishes them from more widespread, institutionalized religions that are also bound to a particular ethnicity, such as Hinduism, Shintoism, and Judaism.

Many Indigenous religions evolved without a clear boundary from prehistoric belief systems. They are frequently linked to a geographic heartland and explain the world and its origins based on the characteristics of that region. Rather than individual spiritual experiences, they value ritual activities that bind people to the community, such as dances, traditions, and the use of costumes, masks, and sacred artifacts.107 Today, there are thousands of distinct Indigenous religious traditions spread across the world, though most prominently among communities in Africa, Asia, Australia, the Americas and the Arctic Circle.

In some cases, the traditional beliefs of Indigenous peoples have been altogether erased, often violently, and replaced by the dominant, organized religion of colonizing nations. However, in other cases, the traditional beliefs continue in defiance of (or in combination with) the organized religions of conquest and colonization. Together, adherents of Indigenous religions number in the hundreds of millions107.

Some beliefs of Indigenous religions include107:

• Ancestor veneration, i.e., the belief in (and worship of) the spirits of the deceased;
• Magic, i.e., nonscientific procedures to ward off evil;
• Shamanism, i.e., the belief that certain people (shamans) can contact the spirits; and
• Animism, i.e., the belief that there is no separation between the spiritual and physical (or material) world, and that souls or spirits exist not only in humans, but also in animals, plants, rocks, geographic features (such as mountains or rivers), or other entities of the natural environment (including thunder, wind, and shadows).

African Indigenous religions

Origin

Africa is home to a large number of Indigenous religions. The religions are bound to the history of each people or tribe, many having evolved gradually over hundreds and thousands of years. Most of the religions know a creator god, who shares many characteristics with the Abrahamic god: He (or she) is good, compassionate, just, and loving, and can respond to human requests. Different from the Abrahamic religions, and like Deism, however, the African Indigenous religions hold that God withdrew from the day-to-day affairs of humans and left that task to a group of lesser spirits.109

With the spread of Islam beginning in the 8th century CE, the northern part of Africa became mainly Muslim. While Indigenous religions still exist in this region, they are beneath the surface. The southern part of Africa has mostly become Christian as a consequence of European colonization and missionary work. Still, African Indigenous religions continue to be practiced there to this day.109

Beliefs

The supernatural

Most African Indigenous religions believe in a supreme god who created the world, as well as in spirits. Some spirits are associated with objects and natural phenomena (the Sun, thunder, mountains, earthquakes, etc.). Others are remnants of human beings after death: All humans become spirits after death, and they go to a place that is imagined like the real world (with mountains, forests, etc.). There is neither reward for a good life on Earth nor punishment for an evil life. The living can ask the spirits of the dead to relay their requests to God.109

Moral framework

Marriage and having children are considered a religious duty. Moral offenses include disrespect toward the elderly, sexual transgressions (incest, rape, intercourse with children, adultery, homosexual intercourse), murder, theft, robbery, lying, deliberately causing bodily harm, and the use of sorcery and witchcraft. Such acts are punishable by shame or ostracism (sometimes extended to the family), or by restitution; sometimes the offender is beaten or stoned to death.109

Practices

People express their belief in, and awareness of, God through prayers, invocations, sacrifices and offerings, praise songs, and dedication of children to God. Divination, traditional healing, and magic rituals are also common. Life events (such as birth, initiation, marriage, and death) are celebrated with rites. For initiation, some religions practice circumcision for boys and clitoridectomy (female genital mutilation) for girls. 109

Variants

Today, Africa’s Indigenous religions coexist, and in some cases have merged, with Christianity and Islam. When Africans were brought to the Americas as slaves, several syncretic religions resulted from the merger of African Indigenous religions and Christianity. One such syncretic religion is Candomblé, which is particularly popular in Brazil. Candomblé believes in one all-powerful god, called Oludumaré, who is served by lesser deities.110

Australian Indigenous religions

Origin

Around 50,000 years ago, the first humans arrived in Australia. These were the ancestors of the people known today as Aboriginal Australians. Today, Aboriginal Australians are spread across the continent, with different tribes, languages, traditions, and religions. Central to most Aboriginal religions is “the Dreaming” (also known as “the Dreamtime”), a mythological period of time with a beginning but no foreseeable end, during which the natural environment was shaped by the actions of mythic beings. In Aboriginal thinking, everything that now exists was fixed for all time in the mythic past, and all that the living are asked to do, in order to guarantee the continuance of their world, is obey the law of the Dreaming.111

Starting from the 18th century, Australian Aboriginals were suppressed, driven into the bush, placed in reserves, forcibly assimilated, and killed in large numbers by the European colonizers.111 However, their culture has survived. Today, there are around 1 million Australian Aboriginals, and many follow their traditional Indigenous belief systems.

Beliefs

The supernatural

In the Aboriginal religions, the all-powerful spirits that shaped the world during the Dreaming continue to exist. Some of them entered some physiographic feature, were metamorphosed as hills or rocks, or turned into various creatures or plants. Humans are connected to these spirits through totems.111

Moral framework

The Australian Aboriginal religions traditionally reserve superior rights for men (over women) and older men (over younger men). They also place a high value on personal autonomy.111

Practices

The Aboriginal religions know elaborate rituals involving dance, music, and chants.111

Discussion

Australian Aboriginal history has been passed down through storytelling, with different tribes having different mythological stories. Some of these tell of how a certain geological feature (such as a lake, a mountain, or a reef) came into existence. When comparing these mythological stories to known geological evidence, we sometimes find a striking similarity. For example, the story of the creation of Lake Euramoo in northwestern Australia, as told by the Dyirbal people in 1972 to Australian linguist Robert Dixon, goes as follows:

In reality, Lake Euramoo came into existence via volcanic eruption, and the Dyirbal myth can indeed be understood in this way.

There are other Aboriginal myths that tell the history of natural features: Stories of Port Phillip Bay describe it as once-dry land (and indeed the bay formed in the Ice Age due to rising sea levels), while myths of The Great Barrier Reef describe it as the land between the ancient and current coastlines (it is, in fact, an ancient coastline)113. The interesting thing is that these geological phenomena took place up to 10,000 years ago, suggesting that these stories have been handed down from generation to generation for 10,000 years.

Abrahamic Religions

Abrahamic religions

Long after Australian Aboriginals were telling their stories of mythological phenomena in Australia, and around the time the Vedas of Brahmanism were being written in India, Chinese Folk Religion was developing its pantheon in China, and Zoroaster was formulating his beliefs in Persia, another important branch of religions was being born in the Middle East: the Abrahamic religions. Between 1600 BCE and 1100 BCE, the civilization of the Canaanites flourished in the Southern Levant (today’s Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria). In the tradition of the Ancient Near East religions, they worshiped a pantheon of different gods114. Their main deity was El Elyon, along with his consort Asherah and their divine sons, the Elohim.

The Israelites first appeared in the region as a separate culture around 1250 BCE. By 1082 BCE, they had established a kingdom called Israel. Like the Canaanite Faith, the religion of the Israelites was based on a cult of ancestor worship and the worship of family gods. There was an entire pantheon of gods, including some drawn directly from the Canaanites, such as El Elyon, Asherah, and Baal115.

A novel addition to the Israelite pantheon was the god Yahweh. One common assumption among scholars (the Kenite hypothesis) is that the veneration of Yahweh originated in Sinai, just south of Israel116, and was brought north by migrants, merchants, or prophets. Indeed, the Torah (the holy scripture of Judaism, which forms the Old Testament of the Bible of Christianity) seems to hint at this provenance in multiple places, saying that “the Lord [Yahweh] came from Sinai, [...] from the South, from his mountain slopes”[Bible: Deuteronomy 33:2, Judges 5:4, Isaiah 63:1, Habakuk 3:3]. We can learn more about Yahweh’s origins from the Ugaritic texts, clay tablets dating to 1200 BCE: Yahweh was originally considered a son of El Elyon46. Again, the Torah contains passages that can be understood in this way: One passage tells of the “Most High” (El Elyon) who divides people into nations and gives a share to Yahweh[Bible: Deuteronomy 32:8-9]. The Dead Sea Scrolls (ancient Jewish religious manuscripts dating to the 1st century BCE) show that this passage originally tells of one share for each of El Elyon’s sons, with Yahweh being one of them117. Other passages of the Torah confirm this view: One presents Yahweh as presiding over the council of the gods, with Yahweh himself saying that all members of the council are sons of the “Most High”[Bible: Psalm 82:1-8]. Another one explicitly acknowledges the existence of other gods[Bible: Psalm 86:8].

As for Asherah, figurines discovered in Kuntillet Ajrud (an archaeological site dating back to the 8th century BCE) seem to suggest that she was considered the consort of Yahweh46. The Torah appears to corroborate that view: It condemns the practice of associating Asherah to Yahweh — which indicates that she was, indeed, previously associated with him[Bible: Deuteronomy 16:21-22]117.

Over time, El Elyon and Yahweh were fused into one god117. The word “El” was interpreted to mean “God”, and “Yahweh” was then the name of that god. Traces of this fusion remain in the Torah, where both the name El Elyon (“the Most High”) and the name Yahweh are used to refer to the same god[Bible: Exodus 6:3, Psalm 97:9]. All the attributes of El Elyon were thus attached to Yahweh. Most notably, Yahweh received from El Elyon the property of being the creator of the Universe46. Yahweh thus rose in importance in the Israelite pantheon.

In 722 BCE, Israel was conquered by the Assyrians and many Israelites fled to Judah, just south of Israel. In 598 BCE, Judah was conquered by Babylonia and the temple in its capital, Jerusalem, was destroyed. The most influential citizens of the region were taken to Babylon (close to present-day Baghdad, Iraq) as captives115. In captivity, the Israelite clerics concluded that the destruction of Jerusalem was a punishment from Yahweh for worshiping other gods115. Henceforth, they declared Yahweh the only god and that all other gods were to be abandoned. Asherah, the consort of Yahweh, became associated with the god Baal46118[Bible: Judges 3:7, 1 Kings 18, 2 Kings 23:4] and was abandoned alongside him. At this time, all traces of the other gods were removed from the Torah — although, as we have seen, some have remained.

This was the hour of the birth of Judaism. As the first of the Abrahamic religions, Judaism would later give rise to Christianity, and both would later serve as the basis for Islam. Based on these (and other religions), the Bahai Faith and Spiritualism arose in the 19th century. These religions are grouped together as the Abrahamic religions because they are all influenced by Judaism, and Judaism traces its origin to the mythological ancestor Abraham. The Abrahamic religions share the following beliefs:

• There is exactly one god; and
• Abraham was a prophet of that god.

We will now discuss these religions in detail, and we will further discuss the Abrahamic god in particular in the Chapter on the Abrahamic God.

Judaism

Origin

As we have discussed, the Israelites derived their religion from the Canaanites, merging the Canaanite god El Elyon with his son Yahweh. When Babylon destroyed the temple of Jerusalem in 598 BCE, the clerics saw this as a punishment from Yahweh for worshiping other gods115. Hence, they came to believe that Yahweh was the only god, and the other gods were abandoned. The Israelites then collected, consolidated, and modified their scripture accordingly. This constitutes the beginning of the religion of Judaism, characterized by the belief in a single god and a system of ritual practices and laws. Its adherents are called Jews.

In 539 BCE, Babylon fell to the Persian king Cyrus the Great, who invited the Jews to come back to Jerusalem. The region was then taken by the Greeks in 334 BCE, independent from 160 BCE on, and then taken by the Romans in 63 BCE. The Jews subsequently revolted several times against Roman authority but were ultimately defeated in 136 CE and exiled from Israel. The Jewish people scattered in a large diaspora (mainly in Europe, North Africa, and, later, Russia and the Americas) and were often subjected to persecution in their Christian host lands. Partly in response to these persecutions, the Zionist movement rose in the 19th century to lobby for the establishment of a Jewish state in the historical land of Israel. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, many Jews emigrated to what they saw as their Jewish homeland. This migration was amplified by the Holocaust in the early 20th century, when Nazi Germany murdered 6 million Jews. The influx of Jewish immigrants into the historical land of Israel led to tension, conflict, and violence, culminating in the forced removal of hundreds of thousands of Palestinians from their homes119120 and the creation of the State of Israel.121 Ever since, the region has been in conflict.

Today, Judaism counts about 14 million adherents. Around 5 million of them live in Israel and another 5 million in the United States. The rest are dispersed throughout the world, mainly in Europe.

Beliefs

The supernatural

Judaism holds that there is exactly one god, and that he created the Universe. This god is specifically concerned about the Jewish people. Thus, he shares properties with local spirits in the sense that he centers his interest on a particular group of people. In exchange for the good the god does for them, Jews are called to worship him and to follow his laws122. Judaism holds that after death, humans go to either Heaven or Hell. This applies to both Jews and non-Jews[Talmud: Mishneh Torah/Sefer Hamada/Teshuvah/3:3]. Finally, Judaism holds that there will be a leader (a Messiah, yet to be born) who will restore the nation of Israel123.

Moral framework

One of the bases of Jewish ethics are the Ten Commandments, a list of moral principles that God supposedly handed down to the prophet Moses. They forbid disrespect to one’s parents, killing, adultery, stealing, false testimony, and coveting someone else’s house, wife, animals, or slaves[Torah: Exodus 20]. Another important principle is the Golden Rule: What is hateful to you, do not do unto others124. Kindness, compassion, justice, truth, and peace are other recurring concepts.

Practices

Judaism knows a wide range of observances that include prayers to God, religious clothing (most notably the kippah, a skullcap worn by men), weekly rest on Saturdays (Shabbat), dietary laws, male circumcision, and various festivals.

Variants

Judaism has several different interpretations on the spectrum from the liberal to the orthodox. Reform Judaism is the most liberal, and seeks to adapt Jewish traditions to modern sensibilities, emphasizes social justice, and grants personal choice in matters of ritual observance. Conservative Judaism is a midpoint on the spectrum between Orthodox and Reform Judaism. It adopted certain innovations (such as gender-egalitarian prayer) but maintains the traditional line on other matters (such as the prohibition of marriage with adherents of other faiths). Finally, Orthodox Judaism pursues the strictest understanding of Jewish law. Its adherents do not drive on Shabbat and follow the food restrictions of Kosher law, among other observances. Among Orthodox Jews, the Haredi Jews (also called Ultra-Orthodox Jews) are the most stringent in their commitment to Jewish law and tend to have the lowest levels of interaction with the wider non-Jewish society. Many continue to speak Yiddish, live in isolated community, and dress in traditional clothing (like the distinctive black hats worn by Haredi men). Hasidic Jews are a subgroup of Ultra-Orthodox Jews, and practice direct communion with the divine through ecstatic prayer and particular devotion to “Rebbes”, or spiritual leaders.125

Scriptures

The holy scripture of Judaism is the Torah (also called the Hebrew Bible). It consists of 24 books, which include the five books of the Torah126. Scholars hold that the Torah was compiled from multiple fragments, written by different authors at different points of time between the 8th and 1st centuries BCE. The Torah can be found online in English translation127. The teachings of the Torah are interpreted in the Midrash Aggadah, a large body of scriptures compiled between 200 CE and 1000 CE128.

Another important scripture is the Talmud, a comprehensive written version of Jewish oral law and the subsequent commentaries on it. It was finished in 500 CE and consists of the Mishnah and the Gemara. The Talmud can also be found online in English translation.

Discussion

Different groups of people are associated with Judaism:

Adherents of Judaism

An adherent of Judaism is a person who believes in the tenets of the Jewish religion, as outlined above.

Jewish people

The Jewish people are an ethnicity, tracing their history back to a common ancestor. Traditionally, Jewish identity was passed down through blood from mother to child. Many Jewish people are adherents of Judaism. However, some are atheists and others have adopted another religion. While a non-Jewish person may convert to Judaism under some interpretations of the faith, this remains a rare occurrence (perhaps because male converts have to undergo circumcision)129.

Israelis

Israelis are the citizens of the present-day state of Israel. The majority of Israelis are ethnically Jewish, though not all. Around 20% of the population are Arab130. Just as not every Israeli is Jewish, not every follower of Judaism lives in Israel. Only around half of the world’s adherents of Judaism live in Israel.

What is hateful to yourself, do not do to your fellow man.
That is the whole Law; the rest is just commentary.

Christianity

Origin

Jesus of Nazareth was a Jewish preacher who lived from around 7–2 BCE to around 30–33 CE in what was then Roman Israel. He preached the imminent establishment of God’s kingdom and promised inclusion in this kingdom for the poor, the weak, and the sinners. He emphasized devotion to God, observance of the law, and purity of intention131. According to the Biblical account[Bible: Matthew 26:57–67], Jesus’ claim of being the Messiah and the son of God angered the Jewish priests of Israel. They asked the Roman governor Pontius Pilate to execute Jesus for blasphemy and treason. Pilate complied, and Jesus was crucified. After his death, many of Jesus’ followers believed that he was resurrected by God and lived on Earth for several days before ascending to Heaven131. Jesus' ideas were picked up by Paul the Apostle, who consolidated them in numerous writings. Gradually, the new religion split from Judaism and became Christianity. In a crucial departure from Judaism, Christianity holds that God is the god of the entire human race (without a special link to the Jews), and therefore the faith should be spread to other people10.

In 312 CE, the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great converted to Christianity, and Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire in 380 CE. It then became the dominant religion across Europe and was brought to the Americas and elsewhere via colonization beginning in the 15th century123. Today, Christianity has around 2.4 billion adherents, mainly in Europe, the Americas, and sub-Saharan Africa.

We discuss Christianity in detail in the Chapter on Christianity.

Beliefs

The supernatural

Like Judaism, Christianity holds that there is exactly one God, and that he created the Universe. Different from Judaism, Christianity holds that Jesus is the son of that god, that he was crucified and then rose from the dead, and that his death atones for the sins of humanity123. Most Christians also believe that God is a triune godhead of God the Father, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit, and that after death, humans go to either Heaven or Hell.

Moral framework

Christianity inherited the Ten Commandments from Judaism. However, Jesus urged compassion in the application of the law and put particular importance on the instruction to “love your neighbor as yourself”[Matthew 22:34-40].

Practices

Following Paul’s interpretation that Jewish law was less important after Jesus' resurrection132, Christianity has largely disposed of the practices of Judaism (circumcision, in particular). However, Christianity still practices prayers to the god, and marks life events with rituals, most importantly baptism for birth.

Variants

There are four major Christian denominations: Catholicism, Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, and Protestantism (which includes Evangelical denominations such as Pentecostalism). These variants differ in their organization, rituals, and theological details. For example, the Orthodox Church holds that the Holy Spirit “proceeds from God the Father”, while Catholicism says that the Holy Spirit “proceeds from God the Father and God the Son (Jesus)”133. Most Christian denominations believe that Jesus, God, and the Holy Spirit form a godhead called the trinity. However, some variants of Christianity do not share this belief. One of the largest such groups are the Mormons, with 15 million adherents, who believe that God exists in three distinct entities as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit134. Another such group is Jehovah’s Witnesses, with 8 million adherents, who believe that Jesus is God’s creation135.

Scripture

Christians adopted the Torah from Judaism and added a new part known as the New Testament. The New Testament consists of 27 books written by Paul the Apostle and an unknown number of other anonymous authors, mainly during the 1st and 2nd centuries CE136 . The Torah (called the Old Testament) and the New Testament make up the Bible, the holy book of Christianity. It can be found online in English translation.

Additional Christian beliefs were written down in scriptures called creeds, professions of faith, or catechisms. The Nicene Creed, from 325 CE, for example, codified beliefs in Heaven, sins, Jesus’s resurrection, and Jesus as the son of God137. Other beliefs were declared at other points of time and by different denominations. For example, the Catechism of the Catholic Church explicitly defines the complete belief system of Catholicism. It can be found online in English138. The Book of Mormon, in comparison, is the holy book of Mormonism. It was written in 1830 CE by American Joseph Smith. Smith claimed that the book was based on ancient Native American sources139. However, the Book of Mormon contains a number of anachronisms, like the presence of horses in North America prior to colonization140 (while horses were brought to the Americas by the Europeans), such that this hypothesis finds no acceptance outside Mormonism.

Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your mind. This is the first and greatest commandment. The second is like it: Love your neighbor as you love yourself.

Islam

Origin

According to Muslim tradition, the Prophet Muhammad lived from 570 CE to 632 CE near the city of Mecca on the Arabian Peninsula. At the age of 40, he reported divine revelations from God and began teaching belief in a single god, called Allah (a continuation of the Jewish god Yahweh and the Christian god). Muhammad’s teachings attracted much opposition from the polytheistic Meccans, and he fled to Medina in 622 CE. From there, he and his adherents conducted raids on trade caravans directed to Mecca. In 624 CE, Mecca attacked Medina. However, Muhammad and his followers won the war and returned to Mecca victorious in 630 CE. Around this time, other tribes started adhering to Muhammad’s teachings, and by the time of his death in 632 CE, he had become the most powerful ruler in all of Arabia. His revelations were consolidated in a book called the Quran between 644 CE and 656 CE.141

The historicity of these events, and even the existence of Muhammad, are disputed among scholars, because contemporary evidence about Muhammad outside Muslim traditional sources is scarce142143144145. What is certain, however, is that the newly united tribes attacked the Byzantine and Persian empires from the mid 7th century on. By 750 CE, Islamic rule (and thus, the faith) stretched from Portugal to northwest India. Today, there are around 2 billion Muslims (adherents of Islam), mainly in Northern Africa, the Near East, and central Asia.141 We discuss Islam in detail in the Chapter on Islam.

Beliefs

The supernatural

Islam believes in the same god as Judaism and Christianity[Quran 3:3-4]. However, similar to Judaism and unlike in Christianity, the God is not triune and has no offspring. Allah spoke to the Prophet Muhammad, and these words are recorded in the Quran, which is, thus, literally, the word of God (which distinguishes the Quran from the Bible, which is considered divinely inspired but written by humans). After death, humans go to either Heaven or Hell.

Moral framework

Islamic ethics derives from the Quran and the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad. It focuses on respect for one’s parents[Quran: 17:23], fairness[Quran 17:35] (especially towards orphans[Quran 17:34]), and the prohibition of adultery[Quran: 17:32], unjust killing[Quran 17:33], and lying[Quran 17:34]. The Sharia codifies these sources and others into a comprehensive legal framework.

Practices

The Five Pillars of Islam are the declaration of faith (“there is no deity except God and Muhammad is the messenger of God”), daily prayer, almsgiving, fasting during the month of Ramadan, and pilgrimage to Mecca141. Similar to Judaism, male circumcision is also practiced. Dietary laws prohibit the consumption of pork and alcohol.

Scriptures

Muhammad told his revelations to his followers, and after his death, the verses were collected and written down in a book called the Quran. The Quran can be found online in various English translations146.

The Hadiths are stories about the life of the prophet that serve as a guide to interpreting the Quran. The Hadiths were first transmitted orally and then compiled by scholars in the centuries after Muhammad’s death147. Today, there are several books of Hadiths by different scholars, some of which are regarded as more authoritative than others, depending on the denomination of Islam.

Variants

Islam is divided into the major denominations of Sunni (about 90% of Muslims) and Shia (about 10% of Muslims), as well as a few other minor denominations. Shia and Sunnis differ on whom they consider the legitimate successor of the Prophet Muhammad (Abu Bakr for Sunnis, or Ali ibn Abi Talib for Shias). Wahhabism and Salafism are two particularly conservative subdenominations of Sunni Islam. Sufism is a branch of Islam that emphasizes a mystic approach to religion and that overlaps with Sunni and Shia denominations of the faith.148 The Druze Faith, with 1 million adherents, is a religion in its own right. Originating in Egypt in the 11th century, it is an offshoot of Shia Islam. The Druze keep their practices mostly secret (even to many adherents), but practice monotheism, permit no conversions to or from the faith, and frown upon marriages outside the religion149.

Discussion

Some interpretations of Islam are extremist: They nourish terrorist groups such as Al Qaeda, the Islamic State, and other such groups that engage in often deadly violence for what they consider a defense of Islam. As a result, many in the Western world regard Islam as a terrorist ideology. Others argue that Islam is an inherently peaceful religion, in line with the UN Declaration of Human Rights, that is misunderstood by conservative adherents and abused by extremists. In reality, there are a variety of interpretations of Islam ranging from the liberal to the conservative and the extremist. In this book, we argue that it is not up to an atheist to determine which is the true interpretation of the faith. All atheists can do is acknowledge that there are different interpretations, and that each variant has its adherents. In the Chapter on Islam, we will examine these variants in detail, list the arguments that adherents and opponents of each variant bring forward, and evaluate the compatibility of these variants with Humanist values.

To Allah alone belongs the kingdom of the Heavens and the Earth. He forgives whoever he wills and punishes whoever he wills. And Allah is all-forgiving, most merciful.

The Bahai Faith

Origin

In 1844, the Persian Siyyid Ali-Muhammad became convinced that he was the divine messenger awaited by Shia Islam. He called himself “the Bab” (literally: “the gate”) and taught that God would soon send another prophet, who would be the latest in a line of prophets including Moses, Muhammad and Jesus Christ. This teaching contradicted the Islamic doctrine that Muhammad was the final prophet of Islam, and the Persian authorities set out to execute the Bab by firing squad in 1850. However, the shots only shredded the ropes that suspended him from the wall. He was suspended again and killed, but his survival of the first execution was considered miraculous by his adherents. Two years after his death, one of the Bab’s adherents, the Persian Mirza Husayn Ali Nuri, had a vision that he was the chosen one promised by the Bab. He started calling himself “Bahaullah” (“the glory of God”) and taught that all religions are successive revelations by the same god. His teachings gave rise to the Bahai Faith, with around 6 million adherents spread all over the world.150

Beliefs

The supernatural

The Bahai Faith teaches the oneness of God (there is exactly one god), the oneness of religion (all major religions have the same spiritual foundation), and the oneness of humanity (all humans have been created equal, and diversity of race and culture are worthy of appreciation and acceptance). After death, the human soul goes to Heaven or Hell, depending on one’s behavior on Earth. Both are nonphysical realms.151

Moral framework

The Bahai Faith prohibits slavery, asceticism, mendicancy, monasticism, penance, the use of pulpits and the kissing of hands; prescribes monogamy and the equality of sexes; condemns cruelty to animals, idleness and sloth, backbiting and calumny; interdicts gambling, the use of opium, wine and other intoxicating drinks; prohibits murder, arson, adultery and theft; obliges adherents to engage in some profession and to educate their children; and prescribes obedience to one’s government[The Most Holy Book: Synopsis and Codification, D].

Practices

The Bahai Faith practices obligatory daily prayers, meditation, rites for marriage and death, worship events on holy days, and fasting during a 19-day period of the year[The Most Holy Book: Synopsis and Codification, D].

Variants

The Bahai community has established the Universal House of Justice in Haifa, Israel, with elected members. It legislates on issues not already addressed in Bahai scripture, providing flexibility for the Bahai Faith to adapt to changing conditions. Partly thanks to this institution, there are, to this date, no discernible variants of the Bahai Faith.

Scriptures

The authoritative texts of the Bahai Faith are the writings of its prophets and the messages of the Universal House of Justice152. Important works by Bahaullah are the Book of Certitude (which can be found online in English translation153) and the Most Holy Book (also available online in English translation154), which define laws and practices. The decisions of the Universal House of Justice, too, can be found online155 in English translation.

It is not for him to pride himself who loveth his own country, but rather for him who loveth the whole world. The Earth is but one country and mankind its citizens.

Spiritualism

Origin

Spiritualism started in 1848 in New York when Kate and Margaret “Maggie” Fox (aged 11 and 14, at the time) reported that they were able to contact the spirits of the dead, who would respond to their questions with mysterious knockings. Following their claim, others also reported such encounters, and the movement gained followers. Though the Fox sisters later admitted that they produced the knockings themselves, and other mediums were exposed as fraudulent as well, the movement continued unabated. The 1850s saw the establishment of the first Spiritualist churches (mainly in the United States and the United Kingdom) and the codification of the faith based on what the spirits purportedly said.156

In addition to the spirits of the dead, Spiritualism believes in a single god, inherited from Christianity.156 This makes it an Abrahamic religion for the purposes of this book. Today, the number of adherents of different variants of Spiritualism is estimated in the millions, with a large Spiritualist community in Brazil.

Beliefs

The supernatural

Spiritualists believe the soul continues to exist after death as a spirit, and that it is possible for the living to communicate with these spirits. Adherents also believe in a singular god, often referred to as “infinite intelligence”, who created the world157.

Moral framework

Spiritualism emphasizes personal responsibility for one’s actions and honors the Golden Rule: Treat others as you would like others to treat you157156. Spiritualism rose in the century after the Enlightenment, and so its adherents fortuitously found that the spirits favored the equality of genders and the abolition of slavery158.

Practices

The most important practice of Spiritualism is the communication with the spirits of the dead, often in organized sessions called séances.

Variants

Although there are churches of Spiritualism, the religion is not globally organized and adherents practice various blends of Spiritualism with other religions, most notably Christianity. One of the more codified versions of Spiritualism is Spiritism, which was founded in 1857 by Frenchman Hippolyte Léon Denizard Rivail under the pseudonym “Allan Kardec”159. Spiritism adds, to the beliefs of Spiritualism outlined above, the idea of reincarnation, the identification of the god with the Abrahamic god, and the existence of extraterrestrials.

Scriptures

There are a number of books written by different Spiritualists that adherents may take as guidance. For Spiritism, the quintessential books are by Allan Kardec. Of these, The Spirits’ Book, written in 1857 CE, is the most fundamental. It is a collection of responses to several hundred questions that Kardec proposed to people who could purportedly communicate with the spirits, and for which he consolidated and interpreted the answers159. The book is available online in English translation. Other important works are those of Brazilian Francisco Cândido “Chico” (1910–2002). Later, the Spiritualists' National Union of Great Britain and the National Spiritualist Association of the United States codified the principles of the faith in different declarations of principles156 (available online157).

So are there two general elements in the universe: matter and spirit?
Yes, and over everything is God, the Creator and author of all.

New Belief Systems

New religious movements

New religious movements are religious movements that are not yet old enough to be called a religion. New religious movements often reuse elements of existing religions, focus on the self, work towards converting others to their faith, and sometimes exist in a state of tension within mainstream society. Currently, such movements can be broken down into four primary categories:

UFO religions

These new religious movements believe in extraterrestrials160. Typically, adherents assert that the extraterrestrials are interested in the well-being of humanity. The two largest UFO religions are Scientology and Raëlism, with tens of thousands of adherents each, mainly in the Western world.

Neopagan religions

These religious movements claim to derive from pre-Christian (“pagan”) beliefs in Europe161. Common features of such religions are polytheism (reverence for several gods), animism (belief in a spiritual essence for physical objects), and pantheism (the belief that the Universe is identical with divinity). One of the largest such groups are the Wicca, with around 1 million adherents.

Syncretic religions

These are religions that blend one or more existing systems of belief into a new religion. While this can be said of many religions162, in the context of new religious movements, this often concerns combinations of Abrahamic religions, Indigenous religions, East Asian religions, and Indian Yogic practices163.

Rejection of Religion

Quite a number of modern spiritual life philosophies reject religion as dogmatic. These systems are technically still belief systems in the sense of this book, as they postulate the existence of the supernatural. For example, Spirituality seeks a personal interaction with God without religion, Deism posits that God created the Universe but then retired, and metaphysical philosophies hold that “God” is just a different name for a metaphysical phenomenon like the first cause of the Universe.

There are numerous such belief systems worldwide, with a combined number of adherents in the millions.

The Wicca Faith

Origin

In the early 20th century, the so-called witch-cult hypothesis gained popularity in England. It argued that the witches who were persecuted in Europe during the Middle Ages were in fact merely women who practiced pre-Christian pagan traditions. In the 1920s, English Egyptologist Margaret Murray was one of the hypothesis’ most prominent advocates. Though considered incorrect today, it resonated with followers of the occult revival of the late 19th century. Proponents understood the word “witchcraft” to mean ancient pagan wisdom about nature and humankind’s connection to it, not the power to do miracles (let alone as something connected to the devil).164165

In the 1940s, the English anthropologist Gerald Gardner reported to have been initiated to witchcraft by a group of “hereditary witches”, i.e., witches who have supposedly passed on the secrets of witchcraft through the generations. In 1951, The Witchcraft Act (which made it a crime to claim that someone had magical powers) was repealed in England, and Gardner and others started publishing books on their ideas. Thus, the new religious movement of the Wicca Faith was born.164165 The movement generally emphasizes the link between nature and humans. Today, the Wicca Faith has several hundred thousand adherents, mainly in the United Kingdom and the United States.

Beliefs

The supernatural

The prevalent interpretations of the Wicca Faith are dualist: They put forward a Horned God and a Mother Goddess as main deities. After death, the spirit is reborn and will meet again those with whom it had close personal ties in previous lives. Once the spirit has absorbed everything that can be learned through repeated incarnations, it remains in a blissful realm called Summerland. Central to Wiccan belief is the spiritual connection to nature. Furthermore, Wiccans believe that nature can be influenced through magical rituals.165

Moral framework

The Wiccan moral framework is harm-based, meaning that it permits actions (including the practice of magic) as long as they do no harm to others. In addition, adherents believe in the Law of Threefold Return, which states that whatever good or bad a person does will return to that person with triple force.164 Wiccans believe that people should strive to live in harmony with others and with themselves, and with the planet as a whole.165

Practices

Most Wiccan rituals take place within the frame of seasonal festivals during the full moon. They take place usually at night and are lit evocatively by candles if indoors or by the moon, bonfires, or lanterns if outside. A magic circle is cast, an altar with the tools of magic is set up in the circle (pictured), and adherents pray to the gods and perform magic.165

Variants

The Wicca Faith is a rather individualist religious movement, and hence, it exists in many variants. Gardnerian Wicca worships a dual deity (the God and the Goddess) and adheres to a system of seasonal celebrations. Alexandrian Wicca allows for greater flexibility in rituals and emphasizes the development of psychic abilities. Dianic Wicca focuses on women’s mysteries, rites of passage, and empowerment. Eclectic Wicca allows adherents to experiment with rituals, deities, and magical systems, leading to a highly individualized practice. Solitary Wicca is practiced alone, and solitary Wiccans are usually self-initiated and self-taught, utilizing books, online resources, and personal experiences to guide their spiritual path. Traditional Wicca focuses on initiation, with a strong emphasis on lineage and fidelity to the teachings of the founders.166

Scripture

Wicca has no central scripture. The faith is based on the writings of Gerald Gardner and other 20th century writers who sought to rediscover and reestablish the presumed ancient European pagan rites. The most influential book was Gardner’s 1954 Witchcraft Today (available online167). The “Charge of the Goddess” is an important inspirational poem by Doreen Valiente, one of Gardner’s followers (available online168).

Discussion

The word “witchcraft”, used by Wiccans themselves to refer to their practices, usually evokes negative connotations — against which the Wiccan community has had to constantly defend itself. In the words of a Wiccan: “We don’t do anything sinister like Devil worship and we don’t make human or animal sacrifices. We honor, revere and give thanks to nature. We celebrate the seasons. It’s not all blood and gore. In spring, we celebrate life and rebirth then in the winter, decay and death to make way for new life.”169. Thus, for public perception, the Wiccan choice of the word “witches” was arguably suboptimal. It could have been easier to choose a term with positive connotations, such as “spiritual nature lovers”. Then again, adherent’s identification with the shunned term may have a costly signaling effect that proves their devotion to the faith.

Eight words the Wiccan Rede fulfill: An it harm none, do what ye will.

Scientology

Origin

After the Second World War, American science fiction writer L. Ron Hubbard became interested in mental health. He wrote a book called Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health in which he argued that the human analytical mind is inhibited by memories of traumatic experiences (which he called engrams). To rid the mind of these memories, Hubbard proposed a process called auditing, a type of counseling in which engrams are identified, recalled, and ultimately extinguished. Once someone rid themselves of all engrams, they would reach a state that Hubbard called Clear. His theories became popular but were opposed by the American Medical Association for being unscientific.170171

As the theory Hubbard proposed in Dianetics developed, practitioners began to report puzzling memories from their previous lives. This led Hubbard to postulate the existence of an immortal essence (the “thetan”) that existed across repeated incarnations. With this, the religion of Scientology was born and organized by Hubbard in the Church of Scientology.170171

The Church of Scientology has always been controversial. Its practitioners have been investigated for practicing medicine without a license, and its leaders charged for tax fraud. Controversy around the Church peaked in 1979, when senior members infiltrated government offices in order to make copies of official documents about the Church. After their arrest and conviction, the Church was reorganized. Nevertheless, it is still known for aggressively defending its founder and program against critics in courts.170171

Hubbard died in 1986 but the church continues to exist in Australia, Europe, and the United States. In the United States, the number of adherents was estimated to be around 25,000 in 2008172.170171

Beliefs

The supernatural

Scientology holds there is a Supreme Being, called God or “Author of the Universe”. It also believes that the human is an immortal spiritual being and that the human mind is inhabited by engrams (harmful memories) that affect life negatively. These engrams are considered to be the spirits of extraterrestrials that were dropped onto Earth and then killed by the galactic ruler Xenu173. Adherents seek to eliminate these engrams to reach a state of perfect happiness called Clear174.

Moral framework

Hubbard’s “Way to Happiness” lists 21 precepts, among which are the prohibition of promiscuity, theft, and murder, and the promotion of truth, industriousness, love, care for one’s family, support of the government, and care for the environment175.

Practices

The main practices of Scientology are auditing and training. In auditing, a member of the Church asks the audited person, group, or themselves questions in order to locate and eliminate the engrams174. In training, members follow courses delivered by the Church174.

Variants

Since Scientology is controlled by a central organization, and since deviation is shunned, there are no variants of this new religious movement.

Scriptures

One of the main scriptures of Scientology is the book Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health, written in 1950 by founder L. Ron Hubbard. Hubbard followed this up in 1952 with Scientology, A Religious Philosophy, which formalized the teachings of the movement. Other teachings and practices of Scientology are secret to the public173.

Discussion

Scientology has attracted criticism for several reasons:

Profit-Making

One reproach to Scientology is that the church exists mainly to make money173. Contrary to most other religions, Scientology makes none of its scriptures available online for free, and the more advanced scriptures are not publicly available at all (not even as books for purchase). Indeed, virtually all important products and services of the Church are for-pay. According to ex-adherents, to remain in the Church, and to work towards the Clear status, adherents have to constantly purchase services and items: books, auditing services (up to $1000 per hour), and training sessions173. Hubbard himself appears to admit his financial motives for the foundation of Scientology, writing in 1949: I'd like to start a religion; that’s where the money is!176 And indeed, Hubbard used Church funds to build massive personal private residences. The current head, David Miscavige, possesses several multi-million-dollar mansions173.

Fair Game Policy

Another point of criticism is the Fair Game policy of the Church, in which adherents are encouraged to harass, discriminate against, injure, and (in Hubbard’s words) trick, sue, lie to, or destroy any person critical of the Church173. Indeed, the Church has conducted “criminal campaigns of vilification, burglaries and thefts [...] against private and public individuals and organizations” critical of Scientology, according to a court verdict177. Most notable was Operation Snow White, in which members of the Church infiltrated 136 government agencies, foreign embassies, and consulates in order to retrieve official documents about the Church178. Hubbard’s wife and ten other Scientologists were convicted for their role in these infiltrations173.

Policy of Disconnection

“Disconnection” is the severance of ties to people who are antagonistic to Scientology or its tenets179. According to the former head of Scientology’s Office of Special Affairs, the Church requires severance of all ties between a Scientologist and a friend, colleague, or family member deemed to be antagonistic towards the Church180. This can result in the loss of friends, family, and in some cases, even children173.

These phenomena exist also in other religions. As for the profit-making, the Catholic Church is one of the richest nongovernmental organizations on Earth, while Protestant televangelists make millions of dollars from televised masses. As for the Fair Game policy, critics of Islam are persecuted in many Muslim countries and can be sentenced to death in 8 of them. Even in the Western world, vocal critics of Islam run the risk of being killed by Islamist fundamentalists. As for the policy of disconnection, most major religions shun or even persecute apostates. In what concerns these similarities, Scientology has, thus, well advanced on its path from new religious movement to religion.

We welcome you to Scientology. We only expect of you your help in achieving our aims and helping others.

Nonreligious spirituality

Origin

Nonreligious spirituality (also known as “spiritual but not religious” or SBNR) is a belief system that emphasizes an immediate and spontaneous experience of the supernatural but rejects existing religions and their rites181182, prayers, services, communities, and scripture183. (This is not to be confused with Spiritualism, which aims to contact the spirits of the dead.) The notion of SBNR appears in the United States from the second half of the 20th century on184. SBNR adherents may take inspiration from the Abrahamic religions, the East Asian Religions, or the Indian Religions, but distance themselves explicitly from organized religion. They see religion as dogmatic, organized, historically burdened, precisely defined, morally restrictive, and with a claim to universality — and nonreligious spirituality as a purely personal relationship with God or the supernatural181. Around 22% of Americans are categorized as SBNR183, as well as 18% of people in France185.

Beliefs

By definition, there are no codified or uniform beliefs of SBNR adherents. They are united only in their belief that there is something spiritual beyond the natural world (i.e., something supernatural in the terminology of this book) and by their rejection of religion. Beyond that, they may believe183:

• that spirits, unseen spiritual forces, or some other higher power in the Universe exist;
• that spirits or spiritual energies can be contained in animals other than humans;
• that people have a soul or spirit in addition to their physical body;
• that people who passed away reincarnate; or
• that it is possible to communicate with people who have passed away.

SBNR adherents aim to be connected with their true self, with something bigger than themselves, and/or with nature. For these aims, they meditate, “look inside” themselves, or spend time in nature.

Scriptures

There is no official scripture of spirituality. Individual groups, or individual adherents, may or may not use scriptures.

Discussion

Some people use the term “spiritual” simply synonymously with “religious” — possibly because they feel the term “religious” has negative connotations while the term “spiritual” does not. Other people are explicitly both spiritual and religious, meaning that they seek a personal relationship with the supernatural inside their religion. In some cases, people who say they are spiritual are, in fact, adherents of what this book calls Christianity Light. Other spiritual people seek a connection with the supernatural outside existing religions — these are SBNR adherents in the sense of the definition above. For the purposes of this book, both religions and nonreligious spirituality are belief systems.

Metaphysical philosophies

Origin

Some Ancient Greek philosophers had very abstract concepts of God, the Universe, and metaphysics. Parmenides of Elea, for example, proposed a single substance comprising all of reality186. Heraclitus of Ephesus, for his part, conceived of a “logos”: a rational, natural, universal “thought” through which the universe came into being and by which it is maintained187. Likewise, in modern times, some people hold very abstract ideas of God. These ideas often evolved with inspiration from, but in explicit rejection of, the Abrahamic religions. In this book, we group these philosophies together as metaphysical philosophies.

Beliefs

Metaphysical philosophies (in the sense of this book) are belief systems that assert that “God” is just a different name for metaphysical phenomena, such as:

• the abstract first cause of the Universe;
• the Universe at whole (Pantheism);
• the meaning of life;
• the “universal principle of existence”;
• the perceived oneness of nature;
• the human soul;
• something undefined that makes the Universe, humanity, or existence special; or
• other abstract universal hypotheses.

The god of metaphysical philosophies is thus an abstraction in the sense of this book. Metaphysical philosophies do not believe in gods in the usual sense.

Discussion

In this book, we use the term “metaphysical philosophies” to group together a set of worldviews that hold that “God” is just a name for metaphysical phenomena. These philosophies do not believe in a personal god as a conscious entity, which distinguishes them from Deism. They also do not believe in interactions with the supernatural, which distinguishes them from Spiritualism.

Metaphysical philosophies are quite diverse. The only thing they share is that they posit some unfalsifiable statement about the Universe. This can be:

• the claim that the Universe has a first cause, and that this first cause has no cause;
• the claim that the Universe as a whole is something more than the sum of its physical parts;
• the claim that life has a meaning that is deeper than the one that humans give to it;
• the claim that there exists a “universal principle of existence”;
• the claim that nature exhibits a oneness;
• the claim that humans have a soul; or
• the claim that there is something undefined that makes the Universe, humanity, or existence special.

These claims are unfalsifiable and escape science on principle. They are thus supernatural statements, and hence metaphysical philosophies are belief systems in the sense of this book — albeit very reduced belief systems. The supernatural element of metaphysical philosophies entails that adherents of such philosophies will hesitate to call themselves atheists.

These supernatural elements distinguish metaphysical philosophies from mere re-definitions of words. For example, some people hold that the word “God” is just a different word for the concept of love. Love is nothing supernatural. The same goes for the identification of the word “God” with “the Universe” — as in some interpretations of Pantheism. The Universe is nothing supernatural. Thus, the identification of “God” with “love” or “the Universe” is just playing with words. Metaphysical philosophies, in contrast, make an additional metaphysical claim. This makes them belief systems in the sense of this book.

We discuss an atheist view on such philosophies in the Chapter on the God of Gaps, the Chapter on Proofs for Gods, and the Chapter on Truth.

It is wise to listen, not to me but to the Logos, and to confess that all things are one.

Deism

Origin

Deism is a philosophy that originated in Europe in the 17th century. Deists rejected Christian dogmata, keeping only the idea of an impersonal god. According to Deists, God created the world and then left it to operate under the natural laws he had devised. Deism rejects revelation as a source of religious knowledge and asserts that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of a single creator of the Universe.188

Deism flourished during the Age of the Enlightenment and became the dominant religious attitude among Europe’s educated classes in the late 18th century. It was also accepted by many upper-class Americans of the same era, including the first three American presidents.188 Still today, some people believe in the existence of God without the attributes that the Abrahamic religions ascribe to him.

Beliefs

The supernatural

Deism rejects religious dogma, religious practices (with the exception of worshiping God), as well as reports of miracles. Deism believes in a single god who created the Universe, gave humans the ability to reason, and then stopped interacting with the world. Deism holds that this belief is natural and comes from reason alone.188

Moral framework

The early Deists accepted the moral teachings of the Bible188, though that is not always true for today’s Deists. They may instead take inspiration from Thomas Paine, who said: “The world is my country, all mankind are my brethren, and to do good is my religion”189.

Practices

Deists reject all religious practices with the exception of worshiping God.

Scriptures

There are no official scriptures of Deism. Deists may take inspiration from the writings of philosophers such as Lord Edward Herbert of Cherbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, John Toland, Thomas Paine, or David Hume. Thomas Paine’s The Age of Reason, for example, contains a detailed critique of Christianity in favor of Deism. It is available online.

Discussion

Deism believes in a single god (as opposed to several gods or no god) and sees this god as the origin of the Universe. Thus, Deism posits a one-time interaction of God with the physical universe and assumes that the world has a beginning, an idea inherited from the Abrahamic religions. (The Indian religions, in contrast, make no such claim, and neither does science).

Some modern variants of Deism hold that people can have a personal relationship with God. These viewpoints are different from classical Deism, in which God does not interact with this world. For the purpose of this book, such modern variants will be categorized as Spirituality and not as Deism. Other variants of Deism are similar to Christianity in that they hold God as a loving entity who takes interest in the well-being of humanity. These variants of Deism are closer to what this book calls Christianity Light. Other variants of Deism hold that God is not a conscious being, but rather a name for a metaphysical phenomenon. We categorize these beliefs not as Deism but as metaphysical philosophies.

Historically, most Deists saw religions as corruptions of an original, pure religion that was simple and rational. They believed that this original, pure religion had become corrupted188 by priests who had manipulated it for personal gain and for the class interests of the priesthood in general. Historically speaking, there is no evidence for this hypothesis. From what we can tell, religious rites have been popular in all major cultures throughout all of traceable history. Even cultures that take little or no inspiration from today’s major religions do not know the Deist god. Instead, they believe in spirits of nature. For example, Australian Aboriginals have animist beliefs, not Deist beliefs, and they have most likely held some version of these beliefs for tens of thousands of years. In sum, all data points we have are about animist, ritual, and spiritist traditions, not deist ones. The idea of a single god who created the Universe and then retired without leaving any other gods or spirits in charge became popular only in the 17th century in Europe. Based on this, it is clear that Deism is a descendant of the Abrahamic religions, not a precursor to them.

You desire to know something of my religion. [...] Here is my creed: I believe in one God, creator of the universe. [But I have] doubts regarding Jesus' divinity; though [...] I think it needless to busy myself with this question now, when I expect soon an opportunity of knowing the truth with less trouble.

Humanism

Humanism, the particular brand of atheism that this book espouses, is not a religion in the sense of this book because it lacks belief in the supernatural. It is listed here mainly for comparison.

Origin

The first humanist thoughts were formulated in Ancient Greece, where the philosopher Epicurus taught that the goal of human life is happiness, that this requires the absence of pain, and that the gods are of no relevance in this endeavor. These notions were rediscovered during the Renaissance in Europe and gave rise to humanism as a philosophy that centers on humans, their needs, and their dignity. (Such thoughts can also be found in the writings of the Chinese philosopher Mencius.)

Humanism shared the concept of human dignity with Christianity. However, the Scientific Revolution of the 16th century in Europe caused a questioning of the traditional Christian narratives (most notably, Prussian astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus discovered that the Earth orbits around the Sun, and not vice versa). In the 17th century, Deism reduced the Christian god to a mere creator of the Universe. The Age of Enlightenment in the 17th and 18th century continued to emphasize reason and the evidence of the senses as the primary sources of knowledge (instead of religious revelation and conviction) and advanced ideals such as liberty, progress, toleration, fraternity, and the derivation of governmental authority from the consent of the governed — concepts that had few parallels in Christianity at that time. Atheism became more accepted in the latter half of the 19th century in Europe, and philosophers started openly considering moral frameworks without reference to God, religion, or revelations.

These currents nourished a philosophy that today we call secular humanism (or Humanism for short, with a capital H): the combination of the moral and philosophical values of the Enlightenment with atheism. In the 20th century, Humanism was codified in several manifestos, and Humanists formed organizations in several countries, all of which operate under the umbrella of Humanists International. However, many people may share the values of Humanism without adhering to such an organization, or without even knowing that these values are called Humanism. Therefore, the number of adherents is difficult to estimate.

Beliefs

The supernatural

Humanism is atheist and holds that the natural world is all there is. For Humanists, it is up to people to give meaning to their own lives, to develop moral frameworks, to shape their societies, and to discover truths. According to Humanism, the best means to these ends are science, rationalism, free enquiry, freedom of expression, and education.

Moral framework

The moral framework of Humanism is driven by empathy. It is harm-based and egalitarian: Everybody shall have the same rights, and something should be forbidden only when it causes harm to someone else. This means that even though Humanism is nonreligious, it nevertheless defends the freedom of religion. While Humanism first held an exclusive focus on humans, it later came to widely consider nature, animals, and the environment as worthy of protection. In what concerns government and politics, Humanism holds that these should be kept separate from religion, that all nations should be held accountable to the UN Declaration of Human Rights, and that the people should choose their own government.

Practices

Humanists have no common practices, and they typically mingle within their societies without any distinctive sign. Some Humanist organizations offer nonreligious rites of passage for marriages and deaths.

Scripture

Humanist philosophy has been condensed into different documents, most notably the Secular Humanist Declaration of 1980190, the 1996 Minimum Statement on Humanism191, the Amsterdam Declaration of 2002192 (updated in 2022193), and summaries by the American Humanist Association (2003)194 and the British Humanist Association (2020)195 (all of which are available online). That said, loyal to its principle of constant truth-seeking, Humanism continues to evolve and adapt.

Humanism: the philosophy that it is our fellow humans that matter and not some fictional beings.

References

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